语言学导论第11讲：
⏹ENDOCENTRIC construction is one who distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of irs , a word or a group os words, which rves as a definable CENTRE or HEAD.
党员申请⏹EXOCENTRIC construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction. It refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words id functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: coordination and subordination.
COORDINATION is a common syntactic pattern in English and other langauges formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but, and or.
SUBORDINATION refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have
different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
The three basic ytpes of subordinate claus are: complement claus, adjunct (or adverbial ) claus, and relative claus.
(p.89-92)
The term category is ud for defining properties of units like noun and verb.
⏹The noun is usually said to have the categories of number, gender, ca; and the verb the categories of ten, aspect, voice.
⏹1) Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.
There are usually two terms of number: singular and plural.
Classical Greek and Arabic have a third number: dual.
Chine has no numbers.
⏹“们”can be ud only with human nouns, but not with “things”. Even with human nouns, it cannot be ud together with quantifiers.
学生们, *椅子们, *三个学生们
远山红叶
2) Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.
In English, the gender distinctions are natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature: actor, actress, hero, heroine, etc.
In French,the gender distinctions are grammatical.
⏹3) The category of ca is prominent in the grammar of Latin, with six distinctions of nominative(主格), vocative(呼格), accusative(宾格), genitive(属格),dative(与格) and ablative(离格).
In English, pronouns have three cas of nominative主格, accusative宾格and genitive属格.
Nouns have only two cas:general通格 and genitive属格(John’s, boy’s)
⏹Ten and Aspect
Ten and Aspect are two important categories of the verb, and they were not parated in traditional grammar. Bad on the ten system in Latin grammar, English ud to have sixteen tens.
simple prent | 逆风的蔷薇prent progressive | prent perfect | 姜育恒经典歌曲prent perfect progressive |
simple past | past progressive | past perfect | past perfect progressive |
simple future | future progressive | future perfect | future perfect progressive |
simple past future | Past future progressive | 叱石风景区past future perfect | past future perfect progressive |
| | | |
⏹Two Distinctions made by modern linguists:
⏹1)The distinction between time and ten:
Time is a universal concept, which every language is capable of expressing; ten is a linguistic concept, which varies from language to language.
⏹2) The distinction between ten and aspect:
⏹ Ten is deictic(指示的), i.e.indicating time relative to the time of utterance; aspect indicates the time not relative to utterance, but relative to the time of another event described, or implied, in the narrative.
As a result,
⏹纵情忘爱there are only two tens recognized now: past and prent
⏹The so-called future ten is not expresd by morphology, not by the different forms of the verb, but by various other means, such as “will/shall”, “be going to”, “prent progressive aspect”, “simple prent ten” etc.
⏹There are two aspects: perfective(完成体) and imperfective(未完成体).
⏹ The former refers to the completion of an action, and the later express duration without completion.
⏹In English, the two aspects are known as “perfective” and “progressive”.
⏹Quirk suggested that the perfective should be interpreted in the broadest possible way as indicating anterior time:(先前时间）i.e. “time preceding whatever time orientation is signalled by ten or by other elements of the ntence or its context.”(“由时、或句子的其它成分、或上下文表明的任何时间定位前的时间”)
Concord and Government
一致关系和支配关系
芸汐传演员表Concord(agreement) is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
⏹He speaks English.
⏹香辣鸡爪They spoke English.
⏹Government means that the form of some words is controlled by other words in certain syntactic constructions.
⏹It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain category.
