English Lexicology(英语词汇学)
1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English
words and word equivalents, their mantic structures, relations, historical development, formation
and usages.英语词汇学旨在调查和研究英语单词和单词的等价物的形态结构，其语义结构、关
系、历史发展、形成和用法。
2.English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), mantics(语义学), etymology(词源学),stylistics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学)
Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabulary
1.Word（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and
meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of
meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a ntence
词语是语言最小的自由形式，拥有固定的声音和意义以及句法作用。
2.Sound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the
词语是一个符号，
sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itlf”代表着世界上其他的事物。每种世界文化已经赞成一定的读音将代表一定的人，事，地方，
特性，过程，行动，当然是在语言系统之外。这种象征性的联系几乎总是主观的，并且“在
代表事物和思想的声音和实际的事物和思想之间没有法定关系”
3.Sound and form（读音和形式）：不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from
the Romans,which does not have a parate letter to reprent each other内因是因为英语字母表
采用罗马字母，罗马字母没有独立的字母代表每个读音，因此一些字母代表两个读音或者组
合在一起发音。
（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一个原因是发
音比拼写的变化快，在一些时候还拉开了距离。在最近五百年里，尽管口语发音已经出现了
显著的变化，却没有相应的拼写变化。
（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三个原因是一些早期的书写员发
明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary
最后借词来了，这是丰富英语词汇的重要途径。
（5）printing印刷已经变得非常普及。它有助于固定单词的拼写、standardization标准化使
得拼写不容改变。、dictionary字典在拼写终结中得到好处。
—Old English,The speech of the time was reprented very much more faithfully in writing than it
is today. 古代英语中的口语比今天更忠实的代表书面语
—The written form of English is an imperfect reprentation of the spoken form。英语的书写是
发音形式不完善的代表
4.What is vocabulary？
（1）Total number of the words in a language一个语言的单词综合
（2）Words ud in a particular historical period 特殊历史时期使用的单词
（3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，某个方言，书籍，学科中的所有单词
5.Classification of English Words：英语词汇由所有种类的词汇组成。它们可以根据不同的标
准或者不同的目的进行分类。
By u frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根据使用频率，单词可以分为基础词
和非基础词。
By notion:content words&functional words可以根据概念分成实词和虚词
By origin:native words&borrowed words可以根据来源分为本地词和借词。
6.The basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of
the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. 基础词是几世纪积累的词汇的基础，构成语
言的核心。尽管基础词占英语词汇比例小，它仍然是最重要的组成部分。
7. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的基本特征):
1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性relative）
3)Productivity（多产性are mostly root words or monosyllabic words）4)Polymy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）
8. nonbasic vocabulary(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot （暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) 是新建立的词或者表达，或者已经采用新意的词。
9.—Terminology consists of technical terms ud in particular disciplines and academic areas as
in medicine、in mathematics、in music、in education. 包括特定学科的技术术语和学术领域—Jargon refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themlves用于特定的词汇，通过特定艺术，科学，商业和专业领域的成员在彼此之间交流
—Slang belongs to the sub-standard language ,a category that ems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot俚语粗话属于低等语言，处在标准通用语言，（包括每人用的非正式词汇）
和团体内部语言包括cant(任何下等团体的行话)，jargons,argot
10. slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive俚语生动，直率，印象深刻而且感人
11. Certain words are labeled 'slang' not becau their appearance or pronunciation but becau of their usage特定词被标示为“俚语”不是因为他们的写法和发音，而是因为他们的用法
12.Content words/notional words实词
Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals内容词表示清楚的概念，因为被认为是概念词。他们
包括名词，动词。形容词，副词和数词
13.functional words/empty words虚词
Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as
well as between ntences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to this category. 功能词没有他们自己的概念。因此，他们也称作“空词”。由于他们的主要功能是去表达概念间的关系，词语间和句子间的关系，他们被认为是“结构词”。介词，连词，辅助词和冠词属于这一类
14.区别：
Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English
on average than content words 内容词，构成了英语词汇的主体，是数量多的。并且那数量还
在增长，然而，功能词，只占词汇的很少一部分，保持稳定。然而，功能词比内容词在表达
满分作文大全
上做了更多的工作
15. Native words本地词：1. Neutral in style风格中性 2. Frequent in u使用频繁
（1）Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000
盎格鲁撒克逊源头词数量很少，大约在50000到60000之间
（2）they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 他们构成了基本词汇的主流
（3）stand at the core of the language处在语言的核心
16.Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms从外国带来的词被认为是“借词”“借代词”或者“所借的”
17.Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. 同化词是过去早期借词，现在很好的同化进了英语
Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling非同化词是保留了原始发音和拼写的借词
Translation-loans are words and expressions formed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. 翻译借词是从英语中的现
有材料中取材构成，但是模仿其他语言的构成方式。需要的近义词
Semantic-loans.Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. 借义词这类词不是参考形式借来，但是他们的意义是借来的。
Chapter 2 the development of the English Vocabulary第二章英语词汇的发展
1.The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. 英语不
是英国群岛上原住民的语言。
2. The Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)
The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印欧语群）
The Eastern t:
（1）The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普鲁士语，立陶宛语，波兰语，捷克语，保加利亚语，斯洛
文尼亚语，俄语
（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany波斯语，孟加拉
语，印地语，吉普赛语
(3)The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.
(4)The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.
The Western t:
(5)The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.
(6)The Italian Group（意大利语族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portugue,Romanian) etc. 五种拉丁语言，就是葡萄牙语，西班牙语，法语，意大利语，罗穿珠子打结的方法
马尼亚语都属于意大利语系
(7)The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc苏格兰语，爱尔兰语，
威尔士语，布里多尼语等
(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：
German, Dutch, Flemish and English,Scandinavian(Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) etc. ，德语，荷兰语，弗兰德语和英语（挪威语，冰岛语，丹麦语和瑞典语）这些都被称
作斯堪的纳维亚语言
3.A historical overview of the English V ocabulary英语词汇的历史概述
（1）The first inhabitants were Celts. Their languages were Celtic. 现在所指最早的居民是凯尔
祛法令纹特人，他们的语言仍然是印欧语系的另一分支凯尔特语的方言
（2）The cond major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles英国的第二种主要语言是罗马军团的拉丁语，在公
元前55到54年，罗马人入侵英伦群岛
（3）Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary凯尔特语只对英语词汇有
很小的贡献
4. Old English (450-1150) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000)= Anglo-Saxon
（1）Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century. 在6世纪末期，拉丁语的罗马传教士来传播基督教
（2）urs of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this
period as they did later古代英语的使用者并不像他们后来做的那样大量从拉丁和其他语言借
词
（3）The common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook 通常情况用组合两个本地词的形式来创造新词
（4）many Scandinavian words came into the English language许多斯堪的纳维亚词汇进入
了英语
（5）it was a high inflected language with complex endings它是高度转折的语言正象现代的
德语
5.Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections
（1）The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English诺曼征服开
始了法国词汇不断进入英语的洪流
（2）The situation of three languages(Latin,French,English)existing simultaneously continued
for over a century三种语言并存的情况存在了一百多年
（3）Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland英国和低等国家
有贸易关系，特别是荷兰
（4）Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世纪英语保留更少的转折
If we say that Old English was a language of full endings，Middle English was one of leveled
endings.如果我们说老英语是一种拥有完整结尾的语言，中世纪英语是一个水平结尾。
6.Modern English (1500-up to now): （1）Early（1500-1700）（2）late （1700-up to the prent）
（1）In the early period of Modern English，known as the Renaissance，many new words taken
by scholars from Latin and Greek entered into English许多是学者从拉丁文和希腊文中提取
（2）Latinate flavour of Modern English现代英语的拉丁风格。
（3）In the mid-venteenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of the
world在十七世纪中期，英语从所有世界的主要语言中吸收词汇。
（4）Since the beginning of 20th century，more words are created by means of word-formation
从本世纪初开始，更多的词通过构词法被创造出来
English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the prent analytic language.
英语已经由合成语言（古代英语）进化为现代分析语言
7.Growth of Prent-day English V ocabulary three main sources：总体来说，有三条新词的主要
来源
（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％）现代科学和技术的迅
猛发展
（2）social, economic and political changes（11 ％）社会，经济和政治的变化
（3）the influence of other cultures and languages（24 ％）其它文化和语言的影响
8.Modes of Vocabulary Development词汇发展的样式
（1）Creations: Creation refers to the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. 创造是指新词的构成通过使用现有的材料，也就是说，词根，词缀和
其他元素。
意义改变
（2）Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
意味着一个老的形式获取新含义以便去应对新的需要。
, particularly in earlier times. 借词曾
（3）Borrowing has played a vital role in the development of vocabulary
经在词汇的发展中扮演了至关重要的角色，特别是在早期。
（4）Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢复的古词或者废弃的词也对英语词汇的成长做出了贡献。尽管收
效甚微。
Chapter 3 Word Formation I
概念：词素、语素、语素变体
1.The minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes.
the morpheme is ' the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words'.
最小的意义单位叫做“词素”。词素是“词语组成中最小的功能单位”。
2.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.
词素是抽象的单位，在话语中被认知通过分开的单位，这单位叫做“语素”。
'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'.
它们实际上是能发音的最小的意义载体。
The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.
语素是一个音素发音的词素。
3.Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themlves and function freely in a ntence .they are called monomorphemic words.
语素与词相同，由于它们能代表含义而且能够在句子中自由起作用。这种词叫做单一语素词4.Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.
一些词素被按照语素在其中排列而认识，那些替换的语素被称为”语素变体”。肝掌是怎么回事
5.the morpheme of plurality |-s复数词素（－s）：tpk后面（-s）、dbgl后面（-z）、iz是在sz J, 3, tj, C13之后
the past ten过去形式simple prent 一般现在时posssive 所有格comparative or superlative degrees 比较级和最高级
6.（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themlves and can be ud as free grammatical units in ntences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itlf. (which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free). 不依靠其他语素的语素是自由语素。这些语素自己有完整的意义可以在句子中当作自由的语法单位来使用。
（2）Bound Morphemes(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itlf.They are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. +例子不能作为独立词出现的语素是粘连语素。这样称呼因为它们粘连其他语素去构
成单词。粘连语素主要出现在派生词中。
7.-ist“…的实践者”；-al表示“…的，关于…的”，-ize表示使成为；-ation表示：“动作”,“
过程”，-ic与…有关的
8. Bound Morpheme includes two types粘连语素包括两种，粘连词根和词缀。: (1) bound root(粘附词根) +例子(2)Affix(词缀)
(1) a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.
一个粘连词根是词中承担基础意义的部分，如同自由根词。和自由根词不同的是，他是一
白后
个粘连形式不得不与其他词素组合来构成单词。
西窗In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. 在英语中，粘连词根或者是拉丁语或者是希腊语。尽管它们数
如何折纸盒
量有限，它们的生产力惊人。它们诞生了成千上万的派生词，在现代英语中。
(2)Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.
词缀是附属在单词上或者单词元素上以修改词语意义和功能的结构。
9. Affixes can be put into two groups: 根据词缀的功能，我们可以把它们分为“曲折词缀”和“派生词缀”。
1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes. 是附加在词尾用来表示屈
折关系，因此被称为“屈折词素”。
2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 派生词缀是加在其他语素上建立新词的词缀。派生词缀可以分为前缀和后缀。
