18. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.
19. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).
20． Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.
21． Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perverative coarticulation.
22． Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocal cords.
23． Broad and narrow transcription: the u of a simple t of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;the u of a simple t of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription;while,the u of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.
24． Consonant: are sound gments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal
英语六级多少分过
tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.
25． Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.
26． Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.<th>is an allophone of /t/in English.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated<t>.Both<th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.
27． Vowl:are sound gments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
28． Manner of articulation; in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air pass through certain parts of the vocal tract.
29． Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.
30． Distinctive features: a term of a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.
31． Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.
32． IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devid by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprid system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.感悟青春
33． Supragmental:supragmental featuresare tho aspects of speech that involve more than single sound gments.The principal supra-gmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.
34． Supragmental:aspects of speech that involve more than single sound gments.The principle supragmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.
35. morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destr
oying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
36. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.
37. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and ca, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
38. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be ud only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).
39. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
40. root: the ba from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.
41. allomorph:; any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in class.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural m
orpheme.
42. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.
43. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.
44. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.
45. lexeme:A parate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a ”dog in the manger”)
46. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with mantic interpretation.
47. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.
48. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,tho which refer to substance,action and quality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.
49. open-class: a word who membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.
50. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the cond word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.
51. loanvoord: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight adaptation,in some cas,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.
鸡冠花的功效与作用52. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
53. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.
54. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.
55. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.赤壁古战场
56. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.
57. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.
58. dissimilation: the influence exercid.By one sound gment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.
59. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phra,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous
60. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.
61. concord: also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
62. syntagmatic relation between one item and others in a quence,or between elements which are all prent.
63. paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure,or between one element prent and he others abnt.
64. immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a ntence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phras),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.
65. endocentric construction: one construction who distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which rves as the centre,or head, of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction.
66. exocentric construction: a construction who distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.
67. deep structure: the abstract reprentation of the syntactic properties of a he underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents ,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or a verb and its object.
68. surfacte structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction,which cloly corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.
69. c-command: one of the similarities,or of the more general features, in the two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.
70. government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of X-bar theme: the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.
71. communicative dynamism: the extent to which the ntence element contributes to the development of the communication.
72. ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own consciousness.
73. interpersonal function: the u of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itlf;and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another..
74. textual function: the u of language the provide for making links with itlf and with features of the situation in which it is ud.
75. conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.
76. denotation: the core n of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
77. connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
78. reference: the u of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
79. reference: the u of anguage to express a to talk about things in co
ntext.
80. n: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.
81. synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
82. complentary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely,such as male,female,abnt.
83. gradable antongymy: members of this kind are gradable,such as long:short,big;small,fat;thin,etc.
84. conver antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;ll,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.
85. relational opposites:conver antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presuppos the other. The shorter, are instances of relational opposites.
86. hyponymy: a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)
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87. superordinate: the upper term in he class name.A superordinate usually has veral hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,
88. mantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values,e.g<+human>
89. compositionality: a principle for ntence analysis, in which the meaning of a ntence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.
90. lection restriction:mantic restrictions of the noun phras that a particular lexical item can et requires a human subject.
91. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or ntential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and the connection between them.
92. proposition;what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.
93. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.
94. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match tho of another that precedes or follows.
95. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words propod in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a “recognition lexicon”in which each word is reprented by a full and independent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal is received,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.
96. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.
97. frequency effect: describes the additional ea with which a word is accesd due to its more frequent usage in language.
98. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a t of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary in a specific context.
99. immediate assumption: the reader is suppod to carry out the progress required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the ntence as soon as that word in encountered.
100. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical ns,esp,sight.
101. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic rearch,which studies the understanding of language.
102. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the n that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influence people,convey information and so on.
103. language production: a goal-directed activity,in the n that people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.
104. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical hat of I saw a bat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.
105. macroproposition:general propositions ud to form an overall macrostructure of the story.
106. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into parate modules or components,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.
107. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents, pupils learning lat in grammar.
108. propositions:whatever is en as expresd by a ntence which makes a statement.It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
109. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of respon to a particular word).
110. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structures reprented in the mind of a speaker.Often oppod,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.
111. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.
112. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.
113. writing process: a ries of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuing developmeng.
114. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total t of rules,verning the skilled u of language in a society.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted n of knowledge of a grammar.
115. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”
116. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf language determines thought.
117. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf here’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages.
118. linguistic xism:many differences between me and women in language u are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.
119. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language u in a social context.
120. sociolinguistics of society;one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.
121. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.
122. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as appod to a constative,by which makes a statement which may be true or fal.
123. constative: an utterance by which a speaker express a proposition which may be true or fal.
124. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,and phonology.Namely.,the utterance of a ntence with determinate n and reference.
125. illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something;its force is identical with th
e speaker’s intention.
歌曲播放126. perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it’s the conquence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.
127. conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.
128. entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the ”Mary is running”entails,among other things,”Mary is not standing still”.
129. ostensive communication: a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.
130. communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.
131. relevance: a property that any utterance,or a proposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,necessarily have.
132. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s Make your contribution necessary (G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q).
133. division of pragmatic labour: the u of a marked crelatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarkeda(simpler,less”effortful”)alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message(one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed).
134. constraints on Horn scales:the hearer-bad o-Principle is a sufficiency condition in the n that information provided is the most the speaker is able to..
135. third-person narrator: of the narrator is not a character in the fictional world,he or she is usually called a third –person narrator.
136. I-narrator: the person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story,relating the story after the event.
137. direct speech: a kind of speech prentation in which the character said in its fullest form.
138. indirect speech: a kind of speech prentation in which the character said in its full
est form.
139. indirect speech: a kind of speech prentation which is an amalgam of direct speech.
140. narrator’s repreaentation of speech acts: a minimalist kind of prentation in which a part of passage can be en as a summery of a longer piece of discour,and therefore even more backgruonded than indirect speech reprentation would be.
141. narrator”sreprentation of thought acts: a kind of categories ud by novelists to reprent the thoughts of their of characters are exactly as that ud to prent speech acts.For example,,she considered his unpunctuality.
142. indirect thought: a kind of categories ud by novelist to reprent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that ud to prent indirect speech.For example,she thought that he woule be late.
143. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.
144. narrator’s reprentation of thought acts:a kind of the categories ud by novelists
凤凰岭自然风景区to prent the thoughts of therir characters are exactly the same as tho ud to reprent a He spent the day thinking.
145. indirect thought: a kind of categories ud by novelist to reprent the thoughts of their characters are exactly as that ud to prent indirect speech.For example,she thought that he would be late.
146. fee indirect speech: a further category which can occur,which is an amalgam of direct speech and indirect speech features.
147. narrator”s reprentation of thought: the categories ud by novelists to prent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as tho ud to reprent a He spent the day thinking.
148. free indirect thought: the categories ud by novelists to reprent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as tho ud to reprent a He was bound to be late.
149. direct thought: categories ud by novelists to reprent the thoughts of their characters are exactly the same as tho ud to reprent a speech..
150. computer system: the machine itlf together with a keyboard,printer,screen,disk drives,programs,etc.
151. computer literacy: tho people who have sufficient knowledge and skill in the u of computers and computer software.
152. computer linguistics: a branch of applied liguistics,dealing with computer processing of human language.
153. Call: computer-assisted language learning(call),refers to the u of a computer in the teaching or learning of a cond or foreign language.
154. programnded instruction: the u of computers to monitor student progress,to direct students into appropriate lessons,material,etc.
155. local area network: are computers linked together by cables in a classroom,lab,or building.They offer teachers a novel approach for creating new activities for students that provide more time and experience with target language.
156. CD-ROM: computer disk-read only memory allows huge amount of information to be stored on one disk with quich access to the information.Students and teachers can ac
cess information quickly and efficiently for u in and out of the classroom.
157. machine translation: refers to the u of machine(usually computer)to translate texts from one language to another.
158. concordance: the u of computer to arch for a particular word,quence perhaps even a part of speech in a text.The computer can also receive all examples of a particular word,usually in a context,which is a further aid to the linguist.It can also calculate the number of occurrences of the word so that information on the frequency of the word may be gathered.
159. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated-it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information,
160. annotation: if corpora is said to be unannotated—it appears in its existing raw state of plain text,whereas annotated corpora has been enhanced with various type of linguistic information.
161. informational retrieval: the term conventionally though somewhat inaccurately,appli
椰子果ed to the type of actrvity discusd in this volume.An information retrieval system does not hange the knowledge of)the ur on the subject of his inquiry.it merely informs on the existence(or non-existence)and whereabouts of documents relating to his request.
162. document reprentative: information structure is concerned with exploiting relationships,between documents to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of retrieval strategies.It covers specifically a logical organization of information,such as document reprentatives,for the purpo of information retrieval.
163. precision: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.
164. recall: the proportion of retrieval documents which are relevant.
165. applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to study of cond and foreign language learning and teaching,and other areas such as translation,the compiling of dictionaries,etc
166. communicative competence: as defined by Hymes,the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative u.
167. syllabus:the planning of cour of instruction.It is a description of the cousr content,teaching procedures and learning experiences.
168. interlanguage:the type of language constructed by cond or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a he language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.
169. transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the cond language.When structures of the two languages are similar,we can get positive transfer of facilitation;when the two languages are different in structures,negative transfer of inference occurs and result in errors.
170. validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure.There are four kinds of ent validity,construct validity,empirical valiodity,and face validity.
171. rebiability: can be defined as consistency.There are two kinds of stability reliability,and equiralence reliability.
172. hypercorrection: overu of a standard linguistic features,in terms of both frequenc
verpassing the speakers of higher social status,and overshooting the nding the u of a form inalinguistic environment where it is not expected to occur,For example,pronouncing ideas as[ai’dier],extending pronouncing post-vocalic/r/ in an envorienment where it’s not suppod to occur.
173. discrete point test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis.
174. integrative test: a kind of test in which language structures or skills are further divided into individual points of phonology,syntax and lexis
