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外文文献翻译
International Business Negotiations
Pervez Ghauri & Jean-Claude Usunier
When two people communicate, they rarely talk about precily the same subject, for effective meaning is flavored by each person’s own cognitive world and cultural conditioning. Negotiation is the process by which at least two parties try to reach an agreement on matters of mutual interest. The negotiation process proceeds as an interplay of perception, information processing, and reaction, all of which turn on images of reality (accurate or not), on implicit assumptions regarding the issue being negotiated, and on an underlying matrix of conventional wisdom, beliefs, and social expectations. Negotiations involve two dimensions: a matter of substance and the process. The latter is rarely a matter of relevance when negotiations are conducted within the same cultural tting. Only when dealing with someone from another country with a different cultural background does process usually become a critical barrier to substance; in such ttings process first needs to be established before substantive negotiations can commence. This becomes more apparent when the negotiation process i
s international, when cultural differences must be bridged.
When negotiating internationally, this translates into anticipating culturally related ideas that are most likely to be understood by a person of a given culture. Discussions are frequently impeded becau the two sides em to be pursuing different paths of logic; in any cross cultural context, the potential for misunderstanding and talking past each other is great. Negotiating internationally almost certainly means having to cope with new and inconsistent information, usually accompanied by new behavior, social environments, and even sights and smells. The greater the cultural differences, the more likely barriers to communication and misunderstandings become. When one takes the emingly simple process of negotiations into a cross-cultural context, it becomes even more complex and complications tend to grow exponentially. It is naive indeed to venture into international negotiation with the belief that “after all, people are pretty much alike everywhere and behave much as we do.” Even if they wear the same clothes you do,
speak English as well as (or even better than) you, and prefer many of the comforts and attributes of American life (food, hotels, sports), it would be foolish to view a member of another culture as a brother in spirit. That negotiation style you u so effectively at home can be ineffective and inappropriate when dealing with people from another cultural background; in fact its u can often re
sult in more harm than gain. Heightened nsitivity, more attention to detail, and perhaps even changes in basic behavioral patterns are required when working in another culture.
Members of one culture may focus on different aspects of an agreement (e.g., legal, financial) than may members of another culture (personal, relationships). The implementation of a business agreement may be stresd in one culture, while the range and prevention of practical problems may be emphasized in another culture. In some cultures, the attention of people is directed more toward the specific details of the agreement (documenting the agreement), while other cultures may focus on how the promis can be kept (process and implementation). Americans negotiate a contract; the Japane negotiate a personal relationship. Culture forces people to view and value differently the many social interactions inherent in fashioning any agreement. Negotiations can easily break down becau of a lack of understanding of the cultural component of the negotiation process. Negotiators who take the time to understand the approach that the other parties are likely to u and to adapt their own styles to that one are likely to be more effective negotiators.
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American and Russian people are not similar; their ethical attitudes do not coincide: they evaluate behavior differently. What an American may consider normative, positive behavior (negotiating and reaching a compromi with an enemy), a Russian perceives as showing cowardice, weakness, and
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unworthiness; the word “deal”has a strong negative connotation, even today in contemporary Russia. Similarly, for Russians, compromi has negative connotation; principles are suppod to be inviolable and compromi is a matter of integrity (The Russians are not alone here: a Mexican will not compromi as a matter of honor, dignity, and integrity; likewi, an Arab fears loss of manliness if he compromis.) A negotiation is treated as a whole without concessions. At the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) talks, the Americans thought they had an agreement (meaning conclusive commitment), while the Russians said it was an understanding (meaning an expression of mutual viewpoint or attitude). When the Americans thought they had an understanding, the Russians said it was a procedural matter, meaning they had agreed to a process for conducting the negotiation. Different cultural systems can produce
divergent negotiating styles--styles shaped by each nation’s culture, geography, history, and political system. Unless you e the world through the other’s eyes (no matter how similar they appear to you), you may not be eing or hearing the same. No one can usually avoid bringing along his or her own cultural assumptions, images, and prejudices or other attitudinal baggage into any negotiating situation. The way one succeeds in cross cultural negotiations is by fully understanding others, using that understanding to one’s own advantage to realize what each party wants from the negotiations, a
nd to turn the negotiations into a win-win situation for both sides. A few potential problems often encountered during a cross-cultural negotiation include ( Frank, 1992):
Insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking.
Insufficient attention to the necessity to save face.
Insufficient knowledge of the host country--including history, culture, government, status of business, image of foreigners.
Insufficient recognition of political or other criteria.
Insufficient recognition of the decision-making process.
Insufficient understanding of the role of personal relations and personalities.
Insufficient allocation of time for negotiations.
Over two-thirds of U.S.-Japane negotiation efforts fail even though both sides want to reach a successful business agreement (The U.S. Department of Commerce is even more pessimistic; it esti
结膜炎的症状及治疗>和珅纪晓岚真假美猴王读后感mates that for every successful American negotiation with the Japane, there are twenty-five failures.) In fact, the numbers hold true for most cross-cultural meetings. Often barriers to a successful agreement are of a cultural nature rather than of an economical or legal nature. Since each side perceives the other from its own ethnocentric background and experience, often neither side fully comprehends why the negotiations failed. It is precily this lack of knowledge concerning the culture and the “alien” and “unnatural” expectations of the other side that hinders effective negotiation with tho from another culture.
In cross-cultural negotiations, many of the rules taught and ud domestically may not apply--especially when they may not be culturally acceptable to the other party. For most Western negotiators this includes the concepts of give and take, of bargaining, and even of compromi. The stereotypical, common Western ideal of a persuasive communicator--highly skilled in debate, able to overcome objections with verbal flair, an energetic extrovert--may be regarded by members of other cultures as unnecessarily aggressive, superficial, insincere, even vulgar and repressive. To other
Americans, the valued American traits of directness and frankness show evidence of good intentions and personal convictions. To an American it is complimentary to be called straightforward and aggressive. This is not necessarily so, however, for members of other cultures. To describe a person
as “aggressive”is a derogatory characterization to a British citizen. To the Japane, tho very same traits indicate lack of confidence in one’s convictions and insincerity. Instead, terms such as thoughtful, cooperative, considerate, and respectful instill positives in the Japane and many Asian cultures.
Domestically, the study of negotiation tends to encompass business relationships between parties, tactics, bargaining strategies, contingency positions, and so on. However, in a cross-cultural context, besides the usual rules of negotiation, one has to be wary of fine nuances in relationships and practices and how they are perceived and executed by members of the other culture. The two business negotiators are parated from each other not only by physical features, a totally different language, and business etiquette, but also by a different way to perceive the world, to define business goals, to express thinking and feeling, to show or hide motivation and interests. From the other party’s perspective, for example, to some cultures Americans may appear aggressive and rude, while to others, tho very same Americans appear calm and uninterested.
1 The Art of Negotiations
The word “negotiations”stems from the Roman word negotiari meaning “to carry on business” and is
derived from the Latin root words neg (not) and otium (ea or leisure). Obviously it was as true for the ancient Romans as it is for most businesspersons of today that negotiations and business involves hard work. A modern definition of negotiation is two or more parties with common (and conflicting) interests who enter into a process of interaction with the goal of reaching an agreement (preferably of mutual benefit). John Kenneth Galbraith said “Sex apart, negotiation is the most common and problematic involvement of one person with another, and the two activities are not unrelated.” Negotiations are a decision-making process that provides opportunities for the parties to exchange commitments or promis through which they will resolve their disagreements and reach a ttlement.
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A negotiation is two or more parties striving to agree when their objectives do not coincide.
Negotiation consists of two distinct process: creating value and claiming value. Creating value is a cooperative process whereby the parties in the negotiation ek to
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realize the full potential benefit of the relationship. Claiming value is esntially a competitive process. The key to creating value is finding interests that the parties have in common or that complement each other, then reconciling and expanding upon the interests to create a win-win situ
ation. Parties at the negotiating table are interdependent. Their goals are locked together. A ller cannot exist without a buyer. The purpo of a negotiation is a joint decision-making process through which the parties create a mutually acceptable ttlement. The objective is to pursue a win-win situation for both parties.
Negotiations take place within the context of the four Cs: common interest, conflicting interests, compromi, and criteria (Moran and Stripp, 1991). Common interest considers the fact that each party in the negotiation shares, has, or wants something that the other party has or does. Without a common goal, there would be no need for negotiation. Conflict occurs when people have parate but conflicting interests. Areas of conflicting interests could include payment, distribution, profits, contractual responsibilities, and quality. Compromi involves resolving areas of disagreement. Although a win-win negotiated ttlement would be best for both parties, the compromis that are negotiated may not produce the result. The criteria include the conditions under which the negotiations take place. The negotiation process has few rules of procedure. Rules of procedure are as much a product of negotiation as the issues. Over time, the four Cs change and the information, know-how, and alternatives available to the negotiating international company and the host country also change, resulting in a fresh interpretation of the four Cs, the environment, and the perspective. I木板年画
n esnce, negotiation takes place within the context of the political, economic, social, and cultural systems of a country. The theory of the negotiation process includes the following dimensions: (1) bargainer characteristics, (2) situational constraints, (3) the process of bargaining, and (4) negotiation outcomes. This theory is bad on actors who share certain values and beliefs bad on their culture. The actors function in business and economic situations that also have cultural influences, and they act in certain culturally inscribed ways. We bargain when:
1. A conflict of interest exists between two or more parties; that is, what is, what
one wants is not necessarily what the other one wants.
2. A fixed or t of rules or procedures for resolving the conflict does not exist,
or the parties prefer to work outside of a t of rules to invent their own solution to the conflict.
