CIR536
Basic Principles of Landscape Design1
Dewayne L. Ingram2
晚晴古诗1. This document is CIR536, one of a ries of the Environmental Horticulture Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and
Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Original publication date June 1991. Reviewed October 20
03. Visit the EDIS Web Site at
edis.ifas.ufl.edu.
2. Dewayne L. Ingram, former professor and extension horticulturalist, Environmental Horticulture Department, Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of
Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville FL 32611.
The Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) is an Equal Opportunity Institution authorized to provide rearch, educational information and other rvices only to individuals and institutions that function with non-discrimination with respect to race, creed, color, religion, age, disability, x, xual orientation, marital status, national origin, political opinions or affiliations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida, IFAS, Florida A. & M. University Cooperative Extension Program, and Boards of County Commissioners Cooperating. Larry Arrington, Dean
Landscaping combines elements of art and
science to create a functional, aesthetically pleasing
extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial
purpo of landscape design is to blend man's
technology (hou or building) into the natural
surroundings. To work toward a desirable landscape
design, the landscape horticulturist must have a
working knowledge of art elements and design
principles. This publication is intended for the
commercial landscaper with little or no training in the
u of the basic principles. This publication is not a
complete landscape design text.
ELEMENTS OF ART
Elements of art include but are not limited to
color, line, form, texture and scale. The elements
are never independent of each other, but we will
discuss their individual natures before considering the
interactions.
Color variation can best be explained by u of a
color wheel (Figure 1). Primary colors are red, blue
and yellow. Orange, green and violet are called
condary colors becau they are combinations of
two primary colors. For example, yellow and red are
combined to yield orange. Tertiary colors are the
fusion of one primary and one condary color. The
colors would be between primary and condary
colors.
Figure 1.
Tint refers to a light value and is accomplished
by adding white to the pure color on the color wheel,
while shade is a dark value and is created by adding
black to the pure color on the color wheel. Black,
white and grey are neutrals and are compatible with
any color. Light colors and tints tend to attract
attention as do bright, vivid colors.
Colors are combined into color schemes for
practical applications. Three basic color schemes are
monochromatic, analogous and complementary. A
monochromatic color scheme consists of different
冯骥才散文精选tints and shades of one color and is ldom achieved
个人委托书模板in its pure form in the landscape. An example of an incomplete monochromatic color scheme would include white and pink flowers with a background of a dark pink and red brick hou.
Analogous color schemes combine colors which are adjacent or side-by-side on the color wheel. An analogous color scheme could include green,
blue-green, green-blue, blue and violet blue. This color scheme could be achieved by varying the foliage color from green to blue-green or by using pyracantha with orange-red berries against a red brick hou.
Complementary color schemes combine colors directly across the color wheel. For example, red and green would be complementary colors. A complementary color scheme may be achieved by using plants with green foliage against a red brick hou.
It is possible to have varying color schemes in one area of the landscape as the asons change. White and pink azaleas flowers can yield a monochromatic color scheme with a red brick hou. The green azalea foliage would produce a complementary color for the red brick during the summer. Pyracantha berries would be an analogous color to the red brick in the fall. The landscape designer should consider the color changes throughout the year when developing a landscape plan.
Colors can be ud to visually change distance perspective. Warm colors and light tints like red, orange, yellow and white advance an object or area toward the obrver. The colors and tints placed near the foundation of a hou would make the hou appear clor to the street. Cool colors and deep shades like blue, green and black recede and can be ud to make the hou appear farth
er from the street. Cool colors are restful while warm colors express action and are best ud in filtered light or against a green or dark background.
Color can be ud to direct attention in the landscape. Due to this strong characteristic, color should be ud carefully. When color is ud for this purpo, consideration must be given to year-round color not just to asonal color. Consideration may also be given to the time of day when this color will be enjoyed. White or light tints could be ud to create interest on a patio. Dark colors would add little to family enjoyment of this area as the daylight hours pasd.
Line is related to eye movement or flow. The concept and creation of line depends upon the purpo of the design and existing patterns. In the overall landscape, line is inferred by bed arrangement and the way the beds fit or flow together (Figure 2). Line is also created vertically by changes in plant height and the height of tree and shrub canopies. Line in a small area such as an entrance or privacy garden is created by branching habits of plants, arrangement of leaves and/or quence of plant materials.
Figure 2.
Straight lines tend to be forceful, structural and stable and direct the obrver's eye to a point faster than curved lines. Curved or free-flowing lines are sometimes described as smooth, graceful or gentle and create a relaxing, progressive, moving and natural feeling.
Form and line are cloly related. Line is considered usually in terms of the outline or edge of objects, whereas form is more encompassing. The concept of form is related also to the size of an object or area. Form can be discusd in terms of individual plant growth habits or as the planting arrangement in a landscape.
Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar, spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. (Figure 3). Form is basically the shape and structure of a plant or mass of plants. Structures also have form and should be considered as such when designing the area around them.权宜之计
Figure 3.
Texture describes the surface quality of an object than can be en or felt. Surfaces in the landscape includes buildings, walks, patios,
groundcovers and plants. The texture of plants differs as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and branches differ (Figure 4). Coar, medium or fine could be ud to describe texture but so could smooth, rough, glossy or dull.
Figure 4.
Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings. Size refers to definite measurements while scale describes the size
relationship between adjacent objects. The size of plantings and buildings compared on the human scale must be considered (Figure 5).
状语前置Figure 5.
PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Color, line, form, texture and scale are tools which are ud in combinations to adjust design principles. Design principles include unity, balance, transition, focalization, proportion, rhythm, repetition and simplicity. All the principles interact to yield the intended design.
Unity is obtained by the effective u of components in a design to express a main idea through consistent style. Unity is emphasized by consistency of character between units in the landscape. Us
e of elements to express a specific theme within units creates harmony. Unity can be achieved by using mass planting and repetition.Unity means that all parts of the composition or landscape go together; they fit. A natural feeling
evolves when each activity area belongs to and blends with the entire landscape. Everything lected for a landscape must complement the central scheme and must, above all, rve some functional purpo.Balance in design refers to the equilibrium or equality of visual attraction (Figure 6). Symmetrical balance is achieved when one side of the design is a mirror image of the other side. There is a distinct dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines, forms, textures or colors are on each side of a symmetrical design.
Figure 6.
Asymmetrical balance us different forms, colors and textures to obtain balance of visual
attraction. The opposing compositions on either side of the central axis create equal attraction. For example, mass may be oppod by color or linear dimension by height.
The landscape designer must skillfully manipulate the design elements to create asymmetrical balance. The central axis must be predetermined and then developed by the elements of art and other principles of design discusd in this publication.
Transition is gradual change. Transition in color can be illustrated by the radial quence on the color wheel (monochromatic color scheme) previously discusd. Transition can be obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, or sizes in a logical quential order. For example, coar to medium to fine textures, round to oval to linear structural forms, or cylindrical to globular to prostrate plants. An unlimited number of schemes exist by combining elements of various size, form, texture and color to create transition (Figure 7). Remember, transition refers to the 3-dimensional perspective of composition, not just the flat or facial view.
Figure 7.
It is possible to u transition to extend visual dimensions beyond actual dimensions. For example, radical lines in the private area of the landscape can be ud to enframe and/or focalize a lake scene. Transition of plant materials along the lines can make the scene become a part of the landscape (Figure 8). Transition from taller to shorter plants with textural changes from coar to fine along focal lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene. Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine to coar textures would enframe the scene and make it appear clor, like a painting on a wall. Generally, transition assists in the gradual movement of a viewer's eye to the design and within it.
Figure 8.
Proportion refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other and to the design as a whole. One large towering oak may compliment an office building but would probably dwarf a single story residence (Figure 9). A three-foot pool would be lost in a large open lawn but would fit beautifully into a small private area. And of cour, a colossal fountain would dominate a private garden but could enhance a large city plaza.
Figure 9.
Proportion in landscape design usually relates to people and their activities. The desired size relationships of components in a design should po little problem for the designer who considers this principle routinely in systematic thought process.
Rhythm is achieved when the elements of a design create a feeling of motion which leads the viewer's eye through or even beyond the designed area. Tools like color schemes, line and form can be repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces confusion in the design.
Focalization involves the leading of visual obrvation toward a feature by placement of this feature at the vanishing point between radial or approaching lines. Straight radial lines as in Figure 10 create a strong focalization when compared to curved lines. The viewer's eye is quickly forced along straight lines to a focal point. Generally, weaker or flowing lines of focalization are desirable in the
residential landscape. Transition of plants or other objects along the lines can strengthen or weaken the focalization. Curved lines are stronger when curved toward each other than when curved outward. Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the same direction. Focalization can be adjusted by plant materials along the lines to create symmetrical or asymmetrical focalization. Asymmetrical focalization is indirect while symmetrical focalization is more direct, creating stronger focalization.
Figure 10.
Since focalization can be ud to direct attention to a point, traffic in an area is usually directed to that point. Therefore, focalization could be ud to direct traffic in a garden area. Guidance of view toward features of commercial, aesthetic or cultural value may attract the eye of the unaware without conscious effort.
Repetition refers to the repeated u of features like plants with identical shape, line, form, texture and/or color. Too much repetition creates monotony but when ud effectively can lead to rhythm, focalization or emphasis. Unity can be achieved better by no other means than repetition. Think of repetition as not having too much variety in the design which creates a cluttered or busy appearance.
Simplicity goes hand-in-hand with repetition and can be achieved by elimination of unnecessary detail. Too much variety or detail creates confusion of perception. Simplicity is the reduction of a design to its simplest, functional form, which avoids unnecessary cost and maintenance.
STEPS IN DEVELOPING A
LANDSCAPE DESIGN
The benefits of an organized system in developing a landscape design are tremendous. As with most endeavors, the level of efficiency relative to time input is greatly incread with an organized approach. The game plan for the landscape designer should follow a quence such as the one prented here:
Steps In Design
1. Develop a plot plan.
2. Conduct a site analysis.
3. Asss family needs and desires.
4. Locate activity areas.
一孔见天5. Design activity areas.
6. Plant lection and placement.
Develop a Plot Plan
It is difficult to visualize certain aspects of design without putting it to scale on paper. The designer should think with drawings or sketches and make the mistakes on paper not on the landscape site. The plot plan should consist of 1) accurate hou placement on the lot, 2) accurate lot and hou dimensions with window and door placement and 3) existing driveways and/or walks. It saves a lot of time if the customer has an accurate plat of the hou and lot and a hou floor plan with outside dimensions. The plans maybe cured from the builder, developer or county or city property records. Although the floor plan scale will probably be different from the scale you u, it will still be easier to convert the scale than to physically measure the hou, lot, etc.
Once the hou position on the lot has been determined, this should be drawn to a predetermined scale on tracing paper placed over grid paper. Commonly, 1 inch equals 5 feet or 1 inch equals 10 feet, but you may choo another scale bad upon your drawing equipment and project dimensions. Recommended drawing equipment includes: drafting pencils, T-square, scaled rulers, triangle, art gum erar, drafting tape, grid paper (8 or 10 squares to the inch) and tracing or drafting paper. The designer must have a firm, steady working surface.
Conduct a Site Analysis
A complete survey of the customer's property is esntial. The plot plan will assist you in organizing the information from the site analysis. A thorough site analysis can save you time and money. Existing vegetation, natural factors and features, views, noi levels, utility placement, eaments/tback lines and primary architectural features of the hou should be noted.
Existing plants should be examined. Tree condition and placement should be recorded. Trees on adjoining property that would affect shade patterns on the customer's lot should also be surveyed. This information is esntial to designers, especially since it is their responsibility to blend this home into the natural or existing tting, or to create a tting to be functional and to complement the structure. Shrubs, groundcovers and grass should also be examined as to their condition and potential u.
The landscape horticulturalist may also be involved in protecting existing vegetation during construction. It may be desirable to block vehicular traffic from areas clo to valuable trees.
Natural factors and features of a landscape include hou orientation, land form, soil conditions, rainfall distribution, asonal wind pattern and
micro-climatic conditions. Hou orientation affects the exposure of various portions of the hou to t
he sun (Figure 11). This knowledge is esntial so the designer can provide shade in important spots and locate activity areas appropriately. For example, a southeastern exposure is generally the most comfortable spot year-round while a western slope will be hot in the summer and cold in the winter.
Figure 11.早餐的英文怎么写
芒果果冻Land form refers to slope or land elevation changes. It determines surface water drainage patterns and is esntial knowledge for the landscape horticulturalist in developing functional and aesthetically pleasing landscapes.
Soil characteristics will determine lection and placement of plants. Soil pH, nutrient and waterholding capacity and drainage should be considered. Native fertility levels and soil characteristi
cs may be indicated by existing vegetation. Turkey oaks on the property usually indicate dry, infertile soil. Native cypress trees usually indicate poorly drained soils exist or did exist in that area.
Rainfall distribution can be determined on a regional basis. Periods of heavy rainfall can magnify the problems of shallow soils or a hardpan resulting in unwanted standing water. Sometimes the conditions may require the engineering of drainage modifications by some type of tiles or pipe. Often the conditions simply require careful plant lection.
Predominate wind directions differ with the area of the state, the ason and the time of day. Where the wind direction differs in summer and winter, plantings can be arranged to block the cold winter winds from a patio and direct summer breezes into this same area (Figure 12). While conducting the site analysis, be sure to look for existing wind breaks provided by plants and structures on the property or on adjacent property.
All of the factors interact to create
micro-climates. This means that the conditions in a isolated spot may differ considerably from the conditions in another area of the landscape. The designer must consider tho variations in order to "fine-tune" the landscape plan and plant lection.
