【转帖】常见常用法律英语词汇笺注
AKA——也即是,也称为
"Also known as". Ud to list alias or another name, or another spelling of a name ud by a person.怎么骂人最狠
【注】 “也称为,也即是”。通常用来列举一个人的别名、化名或其他名字及另外的拼写法。
Common Law——普通法
Laws that develop through ca decisions by judges. Not enacted by legislative bodies.
common law, system of law that prevails in England and in countries colonized by England. The name is derived from the medieval theory that the law administered by the king's courts reprented the common custom of the realm, as oppod to the custom of local jurisdiction that was applied in local or manorial courts. In its early development common law was largely a product of three English courts—King's Bench, Exchequer, and the Court
of Common Pleas—which competed successfully against other courts for jurisdiction and developed a distinctive body of doctrine. The term “common law” is also ud to mean the traditional, precedent-bad element in the law of any common-law jurisdiction, as oppod to its statutory law or legislation, and also to signify that part of the legal system that did not develop out of equity, maritime law, or other special branches of practice.
行政复议怎么申请【注】 普通法指的是由法官的案例判决发展而来的法律,它不同于立法机关颁布的法律。
『笺』 普通法系是当今世界两大法系之一。关于普通法的历史基础和传统在英国法律史学家S·F·C·密尔松的《普通法的历史基础》和美国法理学家卡尔·N·卢埃林的《普通法的传统》中已经说得十分清楚,而对于普通法之所以有如此强大的生命力的根源以及普通法的精神,美国社会法学学派创始人、美国哈佛大学法学院院长罗斯科·庞德(Roscoe·Pound)则在其《普通法的精神》一书中进行了精辟的阐述。
Court of Equity——衡平法院
Courts of equity were common law courts but had their own principles (e.g., clean hands
doctrine) and their own unique remedies (e.g., injunction, specific performance). Actions were brought either equitably "in chancery" or legally "at law." Courts which are guided primarily by equitable doctrine are said to be courts of equity. Thus, a bankruptcy court is a court of equity.
【注】 衡平法院(Court of Equity),又称大法官法院(Court of Chancery)。1474年,大法官首次以自己的名义发布命令,标志着完全独立的衡平法院正式诞生。
衡平法院,也叫良心法院(Court of Conscience)。法官凭良心判案。衡平法院不实行陪审制,由大法官独自进行审理,自由裁量的余地很大,每个法官的判决也有很大的差别。因此有人说衡平法院的判决是由大法官脚的长短来决定的。衡平法官处理案件主要依据“衡平与良心”的原则(the rules of equity and good conscience),以后逐渐开始适用前衡平法官所创设的先例的原则,在衡平法院管辖的案件中,大量属于欺诈案件。
蒸糕的做法
衡平法院虽然已经消亡,但衡平法的精神依然活着,衡平法已经成为英美法律研究与实务的不竭的源泉。在反避税中,美国税务局与法院越来越多地借助于衡平法的原理原则来防止税收规避,最常用的是“实质高于形式” (Substance over Form)规则,最早在Gregory
v. Helvering一案中所运用,效果很好,也有相当的说服力。此外,还运用“虚假交易规则”(Sham Transaction Doctrine)等。
Emotional distress——精神损害、情感伤害
an increasingly popular basis for a claim of damages in lawsuits for injury due to the negligence or intentional acts of another. Originally damages for emotional distress were only awardable in conjunction with damages for actual physical harm. Recently courts in many states, including New York and California, have recognized a right to an award of money damages for emotional distress without physical injury or contact. In xual harassment claims, emotional distress can be the major, or even only, harmful result. In most jurisdictions, emotional distress cannot be claimed for breach of contract or other business activity, but can be alleged in cas of libel and slander. Evidentiary problems include the fact that such distress is easily feigned or exaggerated, and professional testimony by a therapist or psychiatrist may be required to validate the existence and depth of the distress and place a dollar value upon it.燕泉山
明明歌词
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【注】 Emotional distress(精神损害),这一概念在理论上存在广义和狭义两种学说。广义学说认为精神损害,包括精神痛苦与精神利益的损失。精神痛苦主要指自然人因人格权受到侵害而遭受的生理、心理上的痛苦,导致自然人的精神活动出现障碍;或使人产生愤怒、绝望、恐惧、 焦虑、不安等不良情绪。精神利益的损失是指自然人和法人的人身利益(包括人格利益和身份利益)遭受侵害。如名誉受到毁损、荣誉权受到侵害等。狭义学说认为精神损害,就是指自然人因其人身权受到侵害而遭受的生理上、心理上的损害。
在美国的侵权行为法中,导致精神痛苦(infliction of Mental Distress)分为两种,一种是故意的和轻率的导致他人精神痛苦(intentional infliction of Mental Distress)另一种是过失的导致他人精神痛苦(Negligent infliction of Mental Distress)。构成故意精神损害的要件是:第一,行为人的行为是极端的和粗暴的;第二,伤害是故意的;第三,实际发生的精神损害是严重的。什么是严重的精神痛苦呢?在Davis v. Gage 一案的判决中,爱达荷州上诉法院认为严重的精神痛苦是指已经被“身体上的伤害”证明,或者有证据表明“原告的日常行为已经因此收到妨碍……或者是他/她的精神上遭受难以承受的打击……” 对于要求精神损害赔偿是否必须同时有身体上的伤害(physical injury)发生,美国判例法有详细的规定。尽管说被告的行为同时造成了身体上的伤害的证据与精神损害的严重程度是相互关联
的,但是很明显的是身体受到伤害的证据或者是表现并不是主张故意精神损害赔偿所必需的。然而在过失精神损害的案件当中,原告必须表明他所承受的精神痛苦伴随着身体上的伤害。也就是说在过失精神损害赔偿的领域里,没有“纯粹”的精神痛苦的赔偿,或者说如果没有身体上的伤害或者疾病的表现,精神损害赔偿的主张是得不到支持的。
Equitable estoppel——衡平法禁止反言原则、衡平禁止翻供
where a court will not grant a judgment or other legal relief to a party who has not acted fairly; for example, by having made fal reprentations or concealing material facts from the other party. This illustrates the legal maxim: "he who eks equity, must do equity."
【注】 equitable estoppel (衡平法禁止反言)是英美法系国家的一般契约理论,其基本内涵是“My word is my bond”——言行一致,不得出尔反尔。英美法系国家传统的契约理论是:合同成立、变更均须有约因(consideration),才能产生强制执行之效力。可是实践中大量存在着这样的现象,某人许诺赠与他人物品或答应他人无偿为其做某事,但不久又反悔而使受诺人遭受损失。受诺人受到损失后却无法律依据阻却权利人权利的行使。
关于成长的文案『笺』 1877年英国法官卡恩斯勋爵(Lord Cairns) 审理 Hughes V .Metropolitan Railway Co.案时就提出了禁止反言的观念,但并未引起人们的重视。直至1947年,卡恩斯勋爵的观念被英国大法官丹宁(Lord Denning)传承,并将其确立为一个法律原则。lord denning在其《法律的训诫》中将其解释为:“当一人以他的言论或行为已使另一个人相信,按照他的言论或行为办事是安全的――而且的确是按照他的言论或行为办了事——的时候,就不能允许这个人对他说的话或所做的行为反悔,即使这样做对他是不公平的也应如此。”