Chapter 4
4.1 syntactic（句法的） relations
26个英文字母顺序4.1.1 positional relation(位置关系）
For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phra that can occur in a clau.
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Positional relation or word order refers to the quential（有序的） arrangement of words in a language.
Positional relation are a manifestation(表现）of one aspect of syntagmatic relations
物理公式Word order is among the three basic ways (word order genetic and classification) to classify language words.
Six possible types of language SVO VSO SOV OVS VOS English is SVO.
4.1.2 relation of substitutability(可代替性）
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Firstly relation of substitutability refers to class or ts of words substitutable of each other grammatically in ntence with the same structure.
Secondly it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular t.
This is what Saussure called associative(联想的） relations or in Hjemslev’s paradigmatic(纵聚性的) relation.
4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence(共现）
Means words of different ts of claus may permit pr require the occurrence of a word of another t or class to from a ntence or a particular part of a ntence.
Thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic rations partly to paradigmatic relations.
4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents
4.2.1 Grammatical construction
Any syntactic string of words ranging from ntences over phras structures to certain complex lexemes(词位）
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4.2.2 immediate constituents(直接成分）
Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:
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This is tree diagram. 在句子结构分析中， 成分用来指任何语言单位， 而该单位又是更大语言单位的一部分，如在The girl ate the apple 本身的（A） the boy（B) ate the apple (C）都是一个成分，成分可以和其他成分组合组成更大的单位， 如果两个成分B（the boy )C (ate the apple)结合起来形成一个更高的成分A
Word-level
N=noun
A=adjective
V=verb
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P=preposition
Det=determiner
Adv=adverb
Conj=conjunction
Phrasal
NP=noun phra
AP=adjective phra
VP=verb phraallegorical
PP=preposition phra
S=ntence or clau
To dismantle a grammatical constructure is this way is called immediate constituents or IC analysis.
Bracketing is not as common in u, but it is an economic notation in reprenting the constituent/phra structure of a grammatical unit.
(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions
Endocentric construction is one who distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which rves as a definable centre or head.
Usually noun phras, verb phras and adjective phras belong to endocentric types becau the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.
4.2.3.Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions
4.2.3.1Endocentric（相信结构）
Endocentric construction is one who distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which rves as a definable centre or head.
Usually noun phras, verb phras and adjective phras belong to endocentric types becau the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.
4.2.3.1 Exocentric（并列结构）
Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including
the basic ntence,
the prepositional phra,
the predicate (verb + object) construction, and
the connective (be + complement) construction.
2.4 Coordination and Subordination
Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:
Coordination （并列）is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .
Coordination of NPs:
[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]
Coordination of VPs:
[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]
Coordination of PPs:
[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]
Coordination of APs:
[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]
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Coordination of Ss:
[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].
Subordination（从属） refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
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