一、英译汉（80分，要求全部段落进行概要性翻译）
1. 第一部分（40分）
The tumor-associated microenvironment, which consists of extracellular matrix (ECM), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), inflammatory immune cells, and tumor-associated vasculature, plays a critical role during tumorigenesis. CAFs, which are abundant in tumor-associated stroma, crete veral factors, including HGF and SDF1, to promote epithelial cell neoplastic transformation and cancer cell proliferation. In addition, CAFs interact with other stromal components to stimulate tumor-enhancing inflammation and angiogenesis. Moreover, ECM remodeling by CAFs is esntial for tumor cell invasion and metastasis. Although CAFs are important constituents of the tumor stroma, the paracrine signals that mediate direct crosstalk between CAFs and tumor cells in metastasis are poorly understood.
英语能力描述
mallocExosomes are membrane vesicles that originate in large multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and are relead in the extracellular milieu upon fusion of MVBs with the plasma membrane. Ex
头屑太多怎么办
osomes have the same topology as a cell and contain a broad array of biologically active material. Several cellular components of the tumor microenvironment and cancer cells crete exosomes that function in an autocrine or paracrine manner to promote tumor-induced immune suppression, angiogenesis, and premetastatic niche formation. Currently, it is unknown whether CAFs crete exosomes and whether the microvesicles support cancer cell metastasis.
2. 第二部分（20分）
Becau the spectrum of cancer care includes screening as well as treatment, a comprehensive understanding of breast cancer cost must incorporate the cost of screening and associated workup. While the body of evidence concerning Medicare expenditures for cancer treatment has grown, relatively little is known about cost associated with screening Medicare beneficiaries for breast cancer. This is especially important among older women becau recent guidelines have concluded that there is insufficient evidence to asss the benefits and harms of screening mammography in women 75 years or older.
It is particularly timely to consider the cost implications of breast cancer screening becau newer breast cancer screening technologies, such as digital mammography and computer-aided detection (CAD), have expanded the options available to clinicians and are diffusing into clinical practice. The adoption of the new technologies can increa costs directly through reimburment for the tests and also lead to higher rates of supplementary imaging, biopsy, or cancer detection. It is critical to asss the relation between screening expenditures and population outcomes since newer modalities can increa cancer detection rates but may not improve patient outcomes, particularly among older women.
Ideally, higher breast cancer screening expenditures at the population level should correspond to earlier stage at diagnosis, lower treatment cost, or both. This can be evaluated by comparing differences in screening cost and cancer outcomes across geographic regions, hypothesizing that women living in regions that “invest” more in screening rvices may be less likely to be diagnod at a later stage. However, in actual practice, it is unclear whether higher screening costs are associated with earlier stage at
diagnosis or lower cancer treatment costs at the population level. To address the knowledge gaps, we estimated national breast cancer screening and treatment costs in the Medicare fee-for-rvice program. Our cond objective was to asss regional variation in breast cancer screening cost, while our third objective was to determine the association between regional screening cost and breast cancer incidence and treatment costs. The data will inform clinicians and policy makers in a context of debate about Medicare reimburment for various cancer screening modalities and concerns about growth in cancer expenditures.
3. 第三部分（cyrix20分）
中英网
美国硕士留学费用The Nobel Asmbly at Karolinska Institutet has today decided to award: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2012 jointly to-John B. Gurdon and Shinya Yamanaka(山中伸弥)英文发音 for the discovery that mature cells can be reprogrammed to become pluripotent.length是什么意思
Summary
The Nobel Prize recognizes two scientists who discovered that mature, specialid cells can be reprogrammed to become immature cells capable of developing into all tissues of the body. Their findings have revolutionid our understanding of how cells and organisms develop. John B. Gurdon discovered in 1962 that the specialisation of cells is reversible. In a classic experiment, he replaced the immature cell nucleus in an egg cell of a frog with the nucleus from a mature intestinal cell. This modified egg cell developed into a normal tadpole. The DNA of the mature cell still had all the information needed to develop all cells in the frog.
Shinya Yamanaka discovered more than 40 years later, in 2006, how intact mature cells in mice could be reprogrammed to become immature stem cells. Surprisingly, by introducing only a few genes, he could reprogram mature cells to become pluripotent stem cells, i.e. immature cells that are able to develop into all types of cells in the body. The groundbreaking discoveries have completely changed our view of the development and cellular specialisation. We now understand that the mature cell does not have to be confined forever to its specialid state. Textbooks have been rewritten an
d new rearch fields have been established. By reprogramming human cells, scientists have created new opportunities to study dias and develop methods for diagnosis and therapy.
Life, a journey towards increasing specialization. All of us developed from fertilized egg cells. During the first days after conception, the embryo consists of immature cells, each of which is capable of developing into all the cell types that form the adult organism. Such cells are called pluripotent stem cells. With further development of the embryo, the cells give ri to nerve cells, muscle cells, liver cells and all other cell types - each of them specialid to carry out a specific task in the adult body. This journey from immature to specialized cell was previously considered to be unidirectional. It was thought that the cell changes in such a way during maturation that it would no longer be possible for it to return to an immature, pluripotent stage. Frogs jump backwards in development John B. Gurdon challenged the dogma that the specialid cell is irreversibly committed to its fate. He hypothesized that its genome might still contain all the information needed to drive its development into all the different cell types of an organism. In 1962, he tested thi
s hypothesis by replacing the cell nucleus of a frog's egg cell with a nucleus from a mature, specialized cell derived from the intestine of a tadpole. The egg developed into a fully functional, cloned tadpole and subquent repeats of the experiment yielded adult frogs. The nucleus of the mature cell had not lost its capacity to drive development to a fully functional organism.
下午茶 英文
