《语⾔学》缩写_Abbreviation
[Expand]
Support Wikipedia: a non-profit project —Donate Now Abbreviation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, arch
For the HTML tag, e HTML element.
For guidelines on making and editing abbreviation articles on Wikipedia, e Wikipedia:Disambiguation and abbreviations. This article needs additional citations for verification.
Plea help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2008)
An abbreviation(from Latin brevis"short") is a shortened form of a word or phra. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phra. For example, the word "abbreviation" can itlf be reprented by the abbreviation "abbr." or "abbrev."
Contents
[hide]
1 History
尺子的英文2 Types of abbreviation
o 2.1 Syllabic abbreviation
2.1.1 U in various languages
网课哪个平台比较好2.1.2 Syllabic abbreviations in names of organizations 3 Style conventions in English
o 3.1 Lowerca letters
o 3.2 Periods (full stops) and spaces
o 3.3 Plural forms
o 3.4 Conventions followed by publications and newspapers
3.4.1 United States
3.4.2 United Kingdom
3.4.3 Miscellaneous and general rules
4 Measurement
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
[edit] History
Abbreviation has been ud as long as phonetic script existed, in some ns actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being ud to reprent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction
of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. An increa in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in
the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the u of abbreviation[1]. At first, abbreviations were sometimes reprented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, specific phoneme ts like "er" were dropped from words and replaced with ?, like "mast?" instead of "master" or exac?bate instead of "exacerbate". While this ems trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford university Register, 1503:
Mast? subwarden? y ?mēde me to you. And wher? y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differr? thelection? ov?to quīdena? tinitatis y have be thoug?t me syn? that itt woll be then? a bowte mydsom?.
In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a fad. For example, during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The u of abbreviation for the names of "Father of modern etymology" J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, and other members of Oxford literary group known as the Inklings, are someti
mes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewi, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.[2][3]
After World War II, the British greatly reduced their u of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least mi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept its u until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of cret agents called the
"Special Operations, Executive" — "S.O.,E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960.
But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themlves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.
nexus
Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the u of periods in abbreviations completely.
Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many urs of carbon-film ribbons, since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.
[edit] Types of abbreviation
Apart from the common form of word-contraction, there are other types of abbreviation. The include acronym and initialism (including
three-letter acronyms), apocope, clipping, elision, syncope, syllabic abbreviation, and portmanteau words.
[edit] Syllabic abbreviation
See also: Clipping (morphology)
A syllabic abbreviation (SA) is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial syllables of veral words, such as Interpol for Inter national pol ice, but should be distinguished from portmanteau words. They are usually written in lower ca, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter.
[edit] U in various languages
Syllabic abbreviations are not widely ud in English or French, but are common in certain languages, like German and Russian.
They prevailed in Germany under the Nazis and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, Gestapo stands for Ge heime Sta ats-Po lizei, or "cret state police". This has given syllabic abbreviations a negative connotation, even though they were ud in Germany before the Nazis, such as Schupo for Schutzpolizist. Even now Germans call part of their police Kripo for Kriminalpolizei. Syllabic abbreviations were also typical of German language ud in the German Democratic Republic, for example, Stasi for Staatssicherheit ("state curity", the cret police and cret rvice) or Vopo for Volkspolizist ("people's policeman").
Some syllabic abbreviations from Russian that are familiar to English speakers include samizdat and kolkhoz. The English names for the Soviet "Comintern" (Com munist Intern ational) and "Milrevcom" (Mil itary
Rev olution Com mittee) are further examples.
Orwell's novel 1984 us fictional syllabic abbreviations like "Ingsoc" (Eng lish Soc ialism) to evoke the u of language under the Nazi and Soviet regimes.
East Asian languages who writing us Chine-originated ideograms instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key characters from a term or phra. For example, in Japane the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren(国連). Such abbreviations are called ryakugo(略語) in Japane. SAs are frequently ud for names of universities: for instance, Beida
(北⼤, Běidà) for Peking University (Beijing), Yondae (??) for the Yoni University, Seouldae () for the Seoul National University and Tōdai (東⼤) for the University of Tokyo.
[edit] Syllabic abbreviations in names of organizations
Syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the U.S. Navy as it increas readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwi have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is ud (in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6," and COMNAVAIRLANT means "Commander, Naval Air Forces, Atlantic".
[edit] Style conventions in English
In modern English there are veral conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent, and to make this easier, publishers express their preferences in a style guide. Questions which ari include tho in the following subctions.
[edit] Lowerca letters
If the original word was capitalized, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower ca letters, there is no need for capitalization, therefore no need for a consistent rule.
[edit] Periods (full stops) and spaces
A period (full stop) is sometimes written after an abbreviated word, but there is much disagreement and many exceptions.
There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, Tiberius is abbreviated as Tb. and not as T.b..
In formal British English, according to Hart's Rules, it is more common to write abbreviations with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation but not otherwi: for example:
"Doctor" becomes "Dr" (for "D–r")
"Professor" becomes "Prof." (for "")
chicago"The Reverend" becomes "Revd" (for "Rev–d")
prettyboy"The Right Honourable" becomes "Rt Hon." (for "R–")
In American English, the period is usually added if the abbreviation might otherwi be interpreted as a word, but some American writers do not u a period here. Sometimes, periods are ud for certain initialisms but not others; a notable instance in American English is to write United States, European Union, and United Nations as U.S., EU, and UN respectively.
A third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (both "Saint" and "Street" become "St"). The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advis that periods should not be ud with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, "Northwest Blvd", "W. Jefferson", and "PED XING"all follow this recommendation.)
Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, lar, and scuba.
Spaces are generally not ud between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phra, so one almost never encounters "U. S.".
When an abbreviation appears at the end of a ntence, u only one period: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.
你懂吗用英语怎么说
[edit] Plural forms
To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter ud as a noun, simply add a lowerca s to the end.
A group of MPs
The roaring '20s
Mind your Ps and Qs
To form the plural of an abbreviation with periods, a lowerca letter ud as a noun, and abbreviations or capital letters that would be ambiguous or confusing if the 's' alone were added, u an apostrophe and an s.
A group of Ph.D.'s
The x's of the equation
Sending SOS's
In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter, e.g. for footnotes.
d. didot — dd. didots (typography)
h. hand — hh. hands (hor height)
l. line — ll. lines
p. page — pp. pages
P. pope — PP. popes
如何学习美容美发v. volume — vv. volumes
[edit] Conventions followed by publications and newspapers [edit] United States
Publications bad in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of the Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press. [verification needed] The U.S. Government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. However, there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with upperca letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in upperca letters. A third variation is to u lowerca letters with periods; this is ud by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publication
s u upperca abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article.
The New York Times is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to omit periods for convenience.
[edit] United Kingdom
Many British publications follow some of the guidelines in abbreviation:
For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the u of full stops or periods in all abbreviations.
The include:
o Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though the would usually not have had full stops — e above) Capt, Prof, etc.;
o Two-letter abbreviations for countries ("US", not "U.S.");
o Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);
o Words ldom abbreviated with lower ca letters ("PR", instead of "p.r.", or "pr")
o Names ("FW de Klerk", "GB Whiteley", "Park JS"). A notable exception is the newspaper The Economist which writes "Mr
F.
W. de Klerk".新闻翻译
o Scientific units (e Measurement below).
Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalid. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation can be abbreviated as "Nato" or "NATO", and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as "Sars" or "SARS" (compare with
"lar" which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalid at all).
Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the "British Broadcasting Corporation"is abbreviated to "BBC", never "Bbc". An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard, e below.)
[edit] Miscellaneous and general rules
Plurals are often formed by doubling the last letter of the abbreviation. Most of the deal with writing and publishing:
MS=manuscript, MSS=manuscripts; l=line, ll=lines; p=page,
赶集的意思pp=pages; s=ction, ss=ctions; op.=opus, opp.=opera. This form, derived from Latin is ud in Europe in many places: dd=didots. "The following (lines or pages)" is denoted by "ff". One example that does not concern printing is hh=hands.
A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double "l" is a parate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) Lloyd George.
Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively.
This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
It is usually advid to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader (UNESCO in a magazine about music,
becau it refers to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, who work does not concern the music).
It is considered acceptable to start off a ntence with an abbreviation, however it is then advid to "ignore" the abbreviation and start the ntence as if it had begun with no
abbreviation, but only if it is not the name of a person, place, or thing. For example, "BTW There is a new office manager." would be acceptable, though even without capping the "T", this instance is still accepted.
[edit] Measurement
lombokThe International System of Units(SI) defines a t of ba units, from which other "derived" units may be obtained. The abbreviations, or more
accurately "symbols" (using Roman letters, or Greek in the ca of ohm) for the units are also clearly defined together with a t of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols. Ther
e should never be a period after or inside a unit; both '' and '10 k.m' are wrong — the only correct form is '10 km' (only followed with a period when at the end of a ntence).
A period "within" a compound unit denotes multiplication of the ba units on each side of it. Ideally, this period should be raid to the centre of the line, but often it is not. For instance, '5 ms' means 5 millicond(s), whereas '5 m.s' means 5 metre·cond(s). The "m.s" here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental SI units — metre and cond.
There should always be a (non-breaking) space between the number and the unit — '25 km' is correct, and '25km' is incorrect. In Section 5.3.3. of The International System of Units (SI), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) states "The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always ud to parate the unit from the number. … The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and cond for plane angle."[4]
