1 Chapter 2
The Development of the English Vocabulary
I. The Indo-European Language Family
1) Armenian
2) Albanian Prussian 普鲁士语
Lithuanian 立陶宛语
Polish 波兰语3) Balto-Slavic Czech 捷克
Bulgarian 保加利亚语
Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语
Russian 俄罗斯语
an Eastern t Persian 波斯语
Bengali 孟加拉语
4) Indo-Iranian Hindi 北印度语
Romany 吉普赛语
Scottish 苏格兰语
Irish 爱尔兰语1) Celtic Welsh 威尔士
Breton 布列塔尼语
Pictish 皮克特语
Portugue 葡萄牙语
Spanish 西班牙语2)Italic French 法语
Italian 意大利语
Rumanian 罗马尼亚语
The Indo-European 3) Hellenic: Greek is the modern language
derived from Hellenic Language Family an Western Set English 英语
German 德语
4) Germanic Dutch 荷兰语
Flemish 弗来芒语Norwegian
Icelandic Scandinavian languages Danish
Swedish
5)Hittite
6) Tocharian
II. A Brief History of English Words
English English has has has a a a history history history of of of only only only 1,500 1,500 1,500 years, years, years, developing developing developing from from from a a a local local local language language
spoken by a small number of people on a small island about the middle of the fifth century. But now English is one of the most important languages in the world, spoken by more than 370 million people as a first language in the United Kingdom, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies and South Africa. And another 300 million million people people people u u u English English English as as as a a a cond cond cond language language language or or or official official official language, language, language, or or or as as as the the medium medium of of of instruction instruction instruction in in in scho
ol school school and and and universities universities universities in in in tho tho tho countries, countries, countries, English English English has has has a a
important position, it is estimated that the number of speakers with varying degrees of proficiency range between 800 million and 1 billion throughout the world.
The The English English English words words words that that that we we we u u u everyday everyday everyday are are are derived derived derived from from from a a a wide wide wide range range range of of
sources, mostly within the Indo-European family of language. The English vocabulary can can generally divided into generally divided into n ative words, native words, borrowed words from from other languages and other languages and hybrid words which we will discuss in the following.
Celtic
Native Elements
The Angles-Saxons-Jutes Period
A History of
English Words
Latin Influences on Old English
The Scandinavian Influence
Middle English
Borrowed Elements The Norman Conquest and French
Loanwords
The Early Modern English Period
The Re-establishment of English
Modern English
Hybrid Words
1. Native Elements (1) Celtic (Pre-English Period---- 450AD)
The first people in England are the Celts. They were the native inhabitants of the Britain. The Celtic languages were once spoken across Europe, they were driven to the the north-west north-west north-west fringe fringe fringe of of of Europe. Europe. Europe. At At At the the the time time time of of of Roman Roman Roman invasion, invasion, invasion, the the the indigenous indigenous
languages of Britain were Celtic. Celtic was probably the first indo-European tongue
to be spoken in England.
In In the the the summer summer summer of of of 55 55 55 B.C. B.C. B.C. the the the Romans Romans Romans conqueror, conqueror, conqueror, Julius Julius Julius Caesar Caesar Caesar made made made Latin Latin Latin an an
official language of culture and and government. government. government. The Celts in The Celts in E ngland had
England had enjoyed the benefit benefit of of of Roman Roman Roman government governm
ent government (55BC---410AD), (55BC---410AD), (55BC---410AD), worshipped worshipped worshipped in in in Christian Christian Christian churches, churches,
and spoke a certain extent, at least, the Latin language by social elite. The Romans never never penetrated penetrated penetrated far far far into into into the the the mountains mountains mountains of of of Wales Wales Wales and and and Scotland Scotland Scotland in in in the the the cour cour cour of of Romanization of the I sland, so the Celtic survived, but
Island, so the Celtic survived, but the Celts had not their own written language. Now we could e some of the place names are from the Celtic, e.g. Thames Thames River , River , London, London, London, Ben Ben Ben Nevis Nevis Nevis And And we we we could could could say say say that that that Latin Latin Latin spoken spoken spoken rather rather extensively for centuries before the coming of English.
(2) The Angles-Saxons-Jutes Period (450AD-1100AD)
As to its origin, the English language is as humble and obscure. It was brought by the German tribes-Jutes, Angles, and Saxons , who conquered the island in the 5th
century (449AD), and became the founders of the English nation. The result was the known known as as as Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Anglo-Saxon Period Period Period or or or Old Old Old English English English Period. Period. Period. Now Now Now in in in word word word ““English English””, , the the “Engl-Engl-”” goes goes back back back to to to the the the Angles, Angles, Angles, the the the ““-ish -ish”” means means ““belonging belonging to to to””, , so so so the the the language language belonged to the “Angles-Angles-”” the “Angle-ish Angle-ish”” language. The English language of today is the language that resulted from the history of the dialects spoken by the three Germanic tribes, and the subquent mixture of the three people. people. The The The vocabulary vocabulary vocabulary of of of Old Old Old English English English is is is almost almost almost purely purely purely Germanic. Germanic. Germanic. English English English is is classified as as a a a Germanic Germanic language to to which which German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian also belong. It shares with the languages similar grammatical grammatical structure structure structure and and and many many many common common common words. words. words. About About About 20-30 20-30 20-30 percent percent percent of of of English English
vocabulary is the Angles-Saxons words. So the Angles-Saxons words are considered to be the native English words and the core of English vocabulary.
2. Borrowed Elements
(1) Latin Influences on Old English (579AD-1150AD)
Latin Latin influenced influenced influenced English English English through through through Celtic Celtic Celtic transmission transmission transmission and and and Chiristianizing Chiristianizing Chiristianizing of of Britain. With the introduction of Christianity into Britain, the Latin influence was not only only extensive, extensive, extensive, but but but thorough thorough thorough and and and marks marks marks the the the real real real beginning beginning beginning of of of the the the English English English habit habit habit of of freely incorporating foreign elements into its vocabulary.
And more than half of prent words in common u are derived from Latin ud in military and official class, cities and towns. By means of prefixes and suffixes, a single root is made to yield a variety of derivative and the range of the is greatly extended by the ea with which compound are formed. So the noun, the adjective, the definite article, the personal pro
noun, the verb, and preposition express
fundamental concepts, especially the ideas of scientific and learned character. It was more resourceful in utilizing its native material than Modern English, which has come to rely to a large extent on its facility in borrowing and assimilating elements from other language, e.g.
church--- abbot/ bishop/ monk/ pope/ priest/ temple/ rule
clothing and houhold----cap/ chest/ mat/ purple/ sack/ silk/ sock
food----pear/ lobster/ cook
animals----elephant/ camel/ tiger
education education and and and learning----learning----school/ school/ grammar/ grammar/ grammar/ meter/ meter/ meter/ master/ master/ master/ noon/ noon/ noon/ anthem/ anthem/
angel/ ver/ gloss/ circle/ talent
(2)The Scandinavian Influence (c.9-c.11)
Scandinavia elements that entered into English language are such as would make their way into it through the give-and-take of everyday life. The earliest loans referred specifically to objects and concepts related to Danish culture, including for boats, for currency, for warriors and place-names. The number of Scandinavian words, according to “English Dialect Dictionary ”, there are 1150 simple words were Danish element. Many words with “sc/sh-, sk-” are Scandinavian origin, e.g.
Noun---- bank/ bank/ birth/ birth/ birth/ bull/ bull/ bull/ dirt/ dirt/ dirt/ down/ down/ down/ egg/ egg/ egg/ fellow/ fellow/ fellow/ gap/ gap/ gap/ guess/ guess/ guess/ kid/ kid/ kid/ leg/ leg/ leg/ skirt/ skirt/
sister/ skin/ trust/ want/ window
Adjective----awkward/flat/ low/ odd/ rugged/ tight/ weak
V erb---- call/ die/ get/ give/ lift/ rai/ take
(3) Middle English----Period of Great Change (1100AD-1500AD)
The change of this period affected English in both both its its grammar and vocabulary. Thos
e Tho in in in the the the vocabulary vocabulary vocabulary involved involved involved the the the loss loss loss of of of a a a large large large part part part of of of the the the Old Old Old English English word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin. (4) The Norman Conquest and French Loanwords (1066AD-1500AD)
In 1066AD, Britain was conquered by Normans. Through the influence of
Norman Norman French, French, French, the the the Old Old Old English English English period period period gradually gradually gradually ended. ended. ended. The The The Norman Norman Norman conquerors conquerors spoke spoke French, French, French, so so so French French French words words words were were were borrowed borrowed borrowed directly directly directly and and and obrvably, obrvably, obrvably, affected affected English English vocabulary vocabulary vocabulary and and and spelling. spelling. spelling. English English English and and and French French French elements elements elements are are are mixed. mixed. mixed. French French
words were borrowed from a wide range of different areas: government, law, hunting, sport, social relationship, morals, fashion, cuisine, etc.
Despite the many French loanwords, English remains English, the very heart of the vocabulary remained English. Middle English is characterized both by its greater French vocabulary and by the loss of inflections. However by the end of the Middle English period, only two of the inflections remained in u, “-es -es”” for plural nouns and the past ten marker “-ed ”.
(5) The Early Modern English Period (1500AD- 1700AD)
This This is is is a a a period period period of of of loss loss loss inflections. inflections. inflections. We We We know know know that that that the the the influence influence influence of of of Latin Latin Latin and and
Greek Greek in in in this this this period period period was was was great great great by by by social social social elite, elite, elite, but but but not not not ud ud ud by by by the the the majority majority majority of of of the the
population. The great humanistic movement of Renaissance took place at the period and incread activity in almost every field; the printing press; the reading habit; the rapid spread of popular education; the incread commerce, transportation and rapid means of communicati
on----books, magazines and newspapers; the growth of specialized specialized knowledge knowledge knowledge and and and the the the emergence emergence emergence of of of various various various forms forms forms of of of lf-consciousness lf-consciousness
about language; the reform of church etc. The social, commercial, technological, and intellectual intellectual force force force relead relead relead in in in the the the Renaissance, Renaissance, Renaissance, had had had profound profound profound effects effects effects on on on the the the English. English. The result was a healthy desire for improvement of new words in various technical fields, where English was notable weak. The great number of new and strange words was borrowed from Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish etc. e.g.
①from
Latin and Greek : words relating technical, biological, legal and medical names and terminology, e.g.
education----act, animal, cherries, church, cup, describe, discuss, dish, disability, equal, exist, expect, graduate, piazza, street, wall, wine, violin …
literature---- anthology, anthology, catastrophe, catastrophe, catastrophe, comedy, comedy, comedy, drama, drama, drama, emphasis, emphasis, emphasis, magic, magic, magic, myth, myth,
poet, rhythm, tactics, tragedy …
philology and maths----basis, geometry, category, ethics, thesis, theory,
hypotenu hypotenu…… biology, physics and chemist---- bulb, dynamo, organism, pneumatics, thermometer thermometer……
medicine medicine and and and science----science----cancer , cleaner , diagnosis, diagnosis, neuralgia, neuralgia, neuralgia, phonograph, phonograph,
rheumatism, telephone, television …
linguistics----antonym, dialect, euphemism, etymology, homonym, idiom,
lexicology, metaphor, metonymy, polymy …
affixes---- auto-, bio-, geo-, tele-, photo-; -able, -ible, -al, -id, -ism, -ist, -ive, -ize, -oid, -logy, -ology, -ous, -tics …
② from French: French language altered the English vocabulary much
in in the the governmental, administrative, law, army, navy, art, learning, medicine, fashion, meals and social life words. government government and and and administrative administrative administrative words----words----alliance, alliance, authority, authority, court, court, crown, crown,
empire, governor, justice, judge, jury, liberty, majesty, minister, noble, office, peasant, prince, public, royal, slave, rvant, state, tax, treaty …
religion religion and and and ecclesiastical ecclesiastical ecclesiastical words----words---- charity, charity, clergy, clergy, clergy, confession, confession, confession, creator , creator , faith, faith,
mercy, miracle, mystery, passion, prayer, sacrifice, rmon, solemn, virtue …
law----accu, arrest, complaint, decree, evidence, heir, proof, prison, property, ntence, sum
mons …
army army and and and military----military----arms, arms, battle, battle, battle, captain, captain, captain, conquest, conquest, conquest, defen, defen, defen, enemy, enemy, enemy, guard, guard,
mail, peace, soldier, spy, victory …
literature----copy, grammar, logic, preface, prologue, pro, title, volume …
clothes---button, coat, collar, dress, embroidery, robe … food----appetite, appetite, biscuit, biscuit, biscuit, beef, beef, beef, feast, feast, feast, fruit, fruit, fruit, grape, grape, grape, lemon, lemon, lemon, olives, olives, olives, orange, peach, orange, peach,
pork, plate, roast, mutton, sugar, supper, toast, taste …
art----figure, painting, palace, music, sculpture, tone …
science---- physician, patient, poison, pul, remedy, surgeon …
fashion and social l ife----life----blanket, blanket, boots, chair, boots, chair,
curtain, diamond, jewel, pearl, screen, train … (6) The Re-establishment of English
Conditions Conditions were changed after 1200. were changed after 1200. It It was was succeeded by
a conflict of interests and a growing feeling of antagonism that culminated in a long period of open hostility with France. “The Hundred Years ’ War ” (1337-1453) between England and France was one of the caus to u English as the language of the country. English began to be ud in the schools, in the law courts and writing, and become the the standard standard standard English English English both both both speech speech speech and and and writing writing writing toward toward toward the the the end end end of of of the the the 1414th century. Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) vividly vividly reflected the changes in reflected the changes in his his English words. English words. And in the later part of the 15th century London Standard had been accepted as the Standard Standard English English English and and and in in in the the the 1616th century, century, the the the u u u of of of London London London English English English had had had become become become a a
