P roc edia CIRP 1( 2012 )359 –
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Available online at
2212-8271 © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elvier B.V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Professor Konrad Wegener
dx.doi/ 10.1016/j.proc ir.2012.04.064
5th CIRP Conference on High Performance Cutting 2012
A study on ultrasonic assisted creep feed grinding of nickel bad
superalloys
D. Bhaduri a , S.L. Soo a,*, D.K. Aspinwall a , D. Novovic b , P. Harden c , S. Bohr d , D. Martin e
a
Machining Rearch Group, School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
b
Turbines, Rolls-Royce plc, Derby, DE24 9BD, UK c
Element Six Ltd., Shannon, Co. Clare, Republic of Ireland
d
Saint-Gobain Diamantwerkzeuge GmbH & Co. KG, Schützenwall 13-17, D-22844 Norderstedt, Germany
e
Hardinge Machine Tools, Whetstone, Leicester, LE8 6BD, UK
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-121-414-4196; fax: +44-121-414-4201.E-mail address: s.l.soo@bham.ac.uk.
Abstract
The paper initially reviews rearch relating to ultrasonic (US) assisted grinding of various workpiece materials. Results from experimental trials to evaluate the influence of applying US vibration when creep feed grinding Inconel 718 with an open structured, alumina bad grinding wheel (POROS 2) are then prented. A full factorial experimental array comprising 18 runs was conducted involving variation in wheel speed (30, 35 and 40m/s), table speed (200, 250 and 300mm/min) and grinding condition (with and without vibration). For tests with US vibration, the workpiece was actuated at a constant frequency (~20kHz)via a specially designed block sonotrode attached to a 1kW piezoelectri
c transducer-generator system. Reductions in vertical (F V )and horizontal (F H ) grinding force components of up to 23% and 43% for F V and F H respectively and surface roughness (S a ) of the ground slots by up to 45% were obrved in the majority of tests when utilising US assisted operation. In terms of surface quality,SEM micrographs revealed greater side flow/ploughing and overlapping grit marks in slots machined with the workpiece vibrated in comparison to standard creep feed ground specimens. Three dimensional topographic measurement of grinding wheel surface replicas indicated that US vibration led to an increa in the number of active cutting points on the wheel.
© 2012 Published by Elvier BV. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Prof. Konrad Wegener Keywords: Grinding; nickel; ultrasonics; vibration.
1. Introduction
The u of ultrasonic actuation as a method for
material removal was first propod in a paper by R.W.
Wood and A.L. Loomis in 1927, with the first patent granted to L. Balamuth in 1945 [1]. Developments since
then have en ultrasonic machining (USM) applied to the cutting of hard but brittle materials such as glass, ruby and ceramics. Traditional USM operation involves a horn and tool arrangement vibrated at frequencies of
20kHz with relatively small amplitudes of ~10-20μm,
that is ud to impact against an abrasive slurry between
the tool and workpiece causing localid fracture. The scope of the technology was further expanded to encompass ultrasonic vibration as an assistive mechanism in a ‘hybrid’ configuration with conventional metal cutting (turning, drilling, milling & grinding) as
well as metal forming process.
Some of the earliest work relating to ultrasonic assisted grinding (UAG) dates back to the mid-1950’s [2] and highlighted benefits such as reductions in
grinding temperature and workpiece tensile residual stress, albeit at a cost of lower G-ratios due to a greater degree of wheel breakdown. Several years later, a project undertaken by the United States Air Force
reported work on excitation of the grinding wheel in a radial direction by attaching the transducer to a half-wave bar (the wheel hub) [3]. A novel technique involving the u of US vibration to clean and prevent loading of pores in a grinding wheel was propod by Kaliszer and Limb [4], which utilid a special coolant
activator oscillating along its axis and radial to the wheel © 2012 The Authors. Published by Elvier B.V . Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Professor Konrad Wegener
D. Bhaduri et al. / P rocedia CIRP 1( 2012 )359 – 364 360
periphery. The ultrasonically cleaned wheels exhibited greater permeability, higher G-ratio and reduced chatter vibrations in comparison to the non-ultrasonically treated wheels.
The majority of published work on UAG over the past ~20 years can be broadly divided into two sub-categories, depending on whether the vibration was applied to the grinding wheel or workpiece. Nakagawa et al. [5] studied the effects of vibrating a cast iron fibre bonded diamond wheel during the grinding of alumina, silicon nitride and tungsten carbide. They found that larger depths of cut were possible leading to higher material removal rates (MRR) and improved dimensional accuracy, together with a 60-70% reduction in normal grinding force. A similar system was also shown to be ca
pable of fabricating precision micro cylindrical tools and micro drills [6], as well as producing machined features having non-circular cavities and blind holes with sharp corners [7]. While not generally recommended for ferrous alloys, Hara et al. [8] demonstrated that it was possible to produce mirror surfaces when grinding die steel (NAK80) with diamond electroplated tools vibrating at a frequency of 60kHz and an amplitude of 4μm. U of a vibrating CBN wheel for grinding small holes in stainless steel was also found to reduce both normal and tangential forces as well as workpiece surface roughness by ~20% [9].
Rearch involving vibration of the workpiece has been more extensive, primarily due to the comparatively simpler experimental tup. Spur and Holl [10] utilid a workpiece bad US assisted creep feed grinding system to achieve a 50% reduction in normal force when machining sintered silicon nitride and alumina, but at the expen of a marginal increa in wheel wear due to higher amounts of micro-splintering of grits under the hybrid configuration. A similar wear mechanism was obrved by Uhlmann [11], who study also revealed that vibration rendered an intermittent cutting action together with higher mechanical but lower thermal loads on the grits. Several investigations with nano-zirconia bad ceramics revealed that the material removal mechanism changed from fracture in conventional grinding to a ductile regime when using UAG [12-13].
Wu et al. [14] detailed the development of an innovative elliptic ultrasonic vibrating shoe (instead of two parate transducers) for centreless grinding, which was subquently utilid in fabricating microscale cylindrical tungsten carbide components with a diameter of 60ȝm over a length of 15mm (aspect ratio of 250) [15]. In an attempt to minimi/eliminate the need for coolant, ultrasonic assisted operation was implemented to investigate the feasibility of dry surface grinding soft steels including 100Cr6 [16-17] and 42CrMo4 [18]. Significant reductions in normal and tangential forces (~30-50%) were obtained when applying ultrasonic actuation, which also decread thermal damage/ grinding burn, thereby improving workpiece surface finish.
The body of rearch on UAG to date has mainly focusd on the surface grinding configuration of materials such as ceramics, glass and various grades of steel (stainless, plain carbon, alloyed etc.), but little information is available on ultrasonic assisted grinding of advanced aerospace materials such as nickel bad superalloys. The aim of the current work was to investigate the effect on grinding forces (vertical and horizontal), workpiece surface roughness/quality (2D and 3D topographical parameters) and wheel wear (G-ratio), when employing ultrasonic vibration during creep feed grinding (CFG) of Inconel 718with an alumina wheel.
2.Experimental details
The experimental trials were conducted on a Bridgeport FGC1000 flexible grinding centre, with a maximum spindle speed of 6000rpm and power rating of 25kW. Rectangular blocks of solution treated and aged Inconel 718 (hardness of ~44±1HRC) measuring 110×50×10mm were ud as the workpiece material. The were clamped onto a specially designed aluminium table/block sonotrode (similar to the one detailed by Azarhoushang and Tawakoli [19]) mounted on the machine worktable, which was connected to a 1kW piezoelectric transducer-generator system, e Fig.
1. The transducer was attached to transmit the US vibration in a direction parallel to grinding feed. The alumina grinding wheels known commercially as POROS 2, had a plain geometry, vitrified bond, open structure (specification: 25A601 I 74 VPMCNN), a diameter of 220mm and a width of 25mm.
The full factorial experimental array comprid 18 tests involving variations in wheel speed (30, 35 and 40 m/s), table speed (200, 250 and 300 mm/min) and grinding condition (with and without vibration). Depth of cut/pass was fixed at 1.0mm with all trials performed in a down grinding creep feed mode without spark-out. The experimental array is shown in Table 1. Each test involved a single pass of the workpiece (50mm cut length).
Dressing of the POROS 2 wheel (after each trial) was carried out using a diamond roller dresr (ĭ 1
05mm) with an average grain size of ~800μm and spacing of ~1.5mm. Two high pressure pumping systems were ud to supply fluid for wheel cleaning (70bar) and into the grinding zone (28bar) via laminar flow nozzles having rectangular cross-ctioned orifices measuring 0.5×20mm and 2×20mm respectively (25mm wide nozzles were not available). The grinding fluid was a创始者
D . Bhaduri et al. / P rocedia CIRP 1 ( 2012 ) 359 – 364 361
water-bad synthetic oil product, Trim C270, with a concentration of 7–10%.
Fig. 1. Experimental tup; (a) Block sonotrode and transducer
arrangement, (b) on-machine configuration
Table 1. Full factorial experimental array
Test no. Wheel speed, V c (m/s ) Table speed, V w (mm/min ) Condition of
vibration 1 30 200 OFF
2 30 200 ON
3 30 250 OFF
4 30 250 ON
5 30 300 OFF
6 30 300 ON
7 35 200 OFF
会计学习计划
8 35 200 ON 9 35 250 OFF
10 35 250 ON 11 35 300 OFF
12 35 300 ON
13 40
200 OFF
14 40 200 ON
15 40 250 OFF
16 40 250 ONanaly
17 40 300 OFF
18 40 300 ON
For trials involving US vibration, the workpiece was actuated at a constant frequency of ~20kHz, while the amplitude of vibration was specified on the generator in
terms of a percentage scale ranging from 0 to 50%. The actual amplitude of the block sonotrode under zero-load condition (workpiece mounted but without grinding) and vibrating at the 50% tting was measured using a Polytech OFV 3001 Lar Doppler Vibrometer coupled to an OFV 303 nsor head. The maximum amplitude recorded was 4.2μm, depending on the positions of the nodes and anti-nodes on the surface of the sonotrode.The block sonotrode exhibited multi-modal vibration in all 3-axes.
Vertical (perpendicular to feed direction) and horizontal (parallel to feed direction) grinding forces were measured using a Kistler 9257A 3-component piezoelectric dynamometer coupled to charge amplifiers and a PC running Dynoware software. In order to determine the G-ratio, wheel diameters were measured before and after each grinding trial using a DEA Swift manual coordinate measuring machine (CMM)connected to a computer programmed with Delcam Power Inspect software. The wheels were assd at 30different points around the periphery, each at 5 different levels of the wheel width.
Both 2D and 3D topographical profiles of the ground workpiece surfaces were recorded using a Taylor Hobson Form Talysurf 120L, with 2D asssment involving a 0.8mm cut-off. Micrographs of the ground surfaces were taken using a JEOL 6060 scanning electron microscope (SEM). Due to sp
ace restrictions in
the SEM chamber, wheel surface topography was assd by producing negative and positive replicas using a graphite block and rubber-resin compound respectively. For the former, the worn wheel was ud to grind a graphite block at a wheel speed of 15m/s, table speed of 150mm/min and depth of cut of 1.0mm. The
resulting surface profiles were then traced, which reprented negative profiles of the wheel surface (assumed zero wear from grinding of graphite block). In contrast, positive replicas of the wheel surfaces were obtained using a synthetic rubber and resin replicating compound (Microt), after which 3D surface profiles were measured using the Form Talysurf system. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Grinding forces, radial wheel wear and G-ratio Figure 2 details the vertical (F V ) and horizontal (F H )grinding forces both with and without US vibration. It was obrved that when operating without ultrasonics,grinding forces generally incread as the table speed was varied from 200 to 300mm/min due to a corresponding ri in the undeformed chip thickness.Converly, no such trend was apparent with the
increa in wheel speed from 30 to 40m/s. The
D . Bhaduri et al. / P rocedia CIRP 1 ( 2012 ) 359 – 364
362application of US vibration however led to lower
grinding forces in the majority of tests, although reductions in F H was more prominent and varied between 26 to 43%. This was most likely due to the intermittent cutting action of the abrasives under vibration leading to reduced frictional forces in the contact zone between the grits and workpiece as well as smaller average chip thickness, despite the modest amplitude generated by the ultrasonic transducer-generator system.
Fig. 2. Vertical (F V ) and horizontal (F H ) forces under different grinding conditions
The effects of operating conditions on radial wheel wear and G-ratio are shown in Fig 3. In general, radial wheel wear (RWW) decread as the table speed incread from 200 to 300mm/min when operating under standard CFG mode. This was attributed to the shorter contact time between the wheel and workpiece material.
Fig. 3. Radial wheel wear and G-ratio under different grinding conditions
With the hybrid configuration, wheel G-ratio was en to improve by between 7 to 45% in 5 of the 9 trials (Tests 2, 4, 6, 14, 18), although it was also found to decrea in 3 of the remaining 4 experiments (Tests 10,12, 16). The reason for the latter is unclear, but the highly porous and open structure of the alumina wheel could have led to errors during measurement of wheel diameters using the contact bad CMM probe. 3.2. Workpiece surface topography and quality Fig. 4 details the 3D surface topographical parameters (S a , S t , S z ) measured for all tests, while Fig. 5 shows r
eprentative 3D topographies of the workpiece surfaces ground with and without ultrasonic assistance respectively. Average surface roughness (S a ) was generally lower when employing US vibration except for tests at the highest parameters (40m/s, 250mm/min and 40m/s, 300mm/min). This was possibly due to the incread incidence of overlapping cuts/greater number of active cutting points per revolution of the wheel compared to when machining under normal grinding conditions, e Fig. 6(a) & 6(b). Converly, peak to peak (S t ) and 10-point average roughness (S z )parameters were generally higher with surfaces machined under US assisted mode. This was thought to be due to the vibration along the Z-axis of the in a direction radial to the wheel surface.Furthermore, greater levels of smearing and side flow/ploughing of the workpiece material were evident from the majority of samples analyd when operating with US vibration, which also suggested incread plastic deformation occurred [10], e Fig. 6(c).
Fig. 4. 3D topographical parameters of ground workpiece surfaces
V w V c G r i n d i n g f o r c e s (N )
V c V w G-ratio
strawberry
R a d i a l w h e e l w e a r (μm )
V c V w 3D t o p o g r a p h y p a r a m e t e r s , S a , S t , S z (μm )
D . Bhaduri et al. / P rocedia CIRP 1 ( 2012 ) 359 – 364 363
Fig. 5. Reprentative 3D topographies of ground surfaces produced; (a) with ultrasonics; (b) without ultrasonics
Fig. 6. SEM micrographs of reprentative ground workpiece surfaces machined; (a) without ultraso
nics, (b), & (c) with ultrasonics
3.3. Grinding wheel surface evaluation
The average surface roughness (S a ) of the graphite blocks and density of peaks (S ds ) from the resin replicas are shown in Fig. 7. The former value is reprentative of the post-grinding wheel surfaces, whereas the S ds parameter provides an indication of the static cutting edge density, according to Blunt and Ebdon [20].
In general, S a incread as V w was incremented from
200 to 300mm/min, irrespective of the wheel speed.Although not shown here, this trend corresponded to equivalent 2D roughness parameters of the ground workpiece surfaces. However following activation of US vibration, the roughness of the graphite replicas/wheel surface decread in most cas compared to plain grinding, which suggested greater uniformity of the resulting grit heights. This was most likely caud by the ‘conditioning effect’ as a result of the vibration, which also translated to the lower workpiece surface roughness (S a ) detailed in the previous ction.
Fig. 7. S a of graphite replicas and S ds of resin replicas of the grinding wheel surface
The density of peaks (S ds ) of the resin (positive)replicas was found to increa in the majority of tests where vibration was applied (e Fig. 8), although slight reductions were obrved in the 3 trials operating at a table speed of 250mm/min (Tests 4, 10 & 16).
Fig. 8. Reprentative 3D topographical plots of wheel surfaces
following grinding; (a) with ultrasonics, (b) without ultrasonics
V c V w S ds of resin replica (pks/mm 2
)
idioticS a o f g r a p h i t e r e p l i c a (μm )
D. Bhaduri et al. / P rocedia CIRP 1( 2012 )359 – 364 364
It has been reported that a decrea in wheel S ds is generally allied to a ri in workpiece surface roughness, and vice versa [21]. This was in line with results detailed in Fig. 4 & 7 where an increa in S ds (under vibration) corresponded to a lower workpiece surface roughness (S a). This was attributed to the greater number of active cutting points per grain (due to grit fracture) generated with
法国爆发大规模抗议u of US vibration. Butler et al. [21] further suggested that a decrea in S ds value signalled loss of grain sharpness, implying that wheels became sharper when using ultrasonic assisted grinding. In addition, no wheel loading was obrved in any of the tests.
4.Conclusions
•The u of ultrasonic assisted operation typically resulted in the reduction of grinding forces and associated workpiece surface roughness when creep feed grinding Inconel 718 superalloy. Similarly, a corresponding reduction in radial wheel wear and improvement in wheel G-ratio of between 7 to 45%
was obtained when grinding in the hybrid configuration.
•In terms of surface quality, SEM micrographs revealed greater side flow/ploughing in slots which were machined with the workpiece vibrated in comparison to standard creep feed ground specimens. Furthermore, larger numbers of overlapping grit marks were visible on surfaces subject to ultrasonic assisted grinding.
•Three-dimensional topographic measurements of grinding wheel surface replicas indicated that u of
US vibration generally led to an increa in the number of active cutting points on the wheel. This subquently resulted in a decrea of corresponding
average workpiece surface roughness (S a).
Acknowledgements
We are indebted to Dr. A.C. Mathieson and Prof. M. Lucas from the University of Glasgow for the provision of facilities to measure the vibrational amplitude of the block sonotrode. Technical advice from M. Prokic of MP Interconsulting on the ultrasonic transducer and generator system is also gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to Rolls-Royce, Element Six, Saint-Gobain Abrasives and Hardinge Machine Tools for additional funding, tooling and technical support.
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