organization

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OrganizationBehavior

Chapter1

zationalbehavior(OB)：Afieldofstudythatinvestigatestheimpactthat

individuals,groupsandstructurehaveonbehaviorwithinorganization,forthe

purpoofapplyingsuchknowledgetowardimprovinganorganization’s

effectiveness

rsdo

Management

function

Planning

Aprocessthatincludesdefininggoals,

establishingstrategy(策略),and

developingplanstocoordinate〔调整〕

activities

Controlling

Monitoringactivitiestoensuretheyare

beingaccomplishedasplannedand

correctinganysignificantdeviations〔背

离〕.

Organizing

Determiningwhattasksaretobedone,who

istodothem,howthetasksaretobe

grouped,whoreportstowhom,andwhere

decisionsaretobemade.

Leading

Afunctionthatincludesmotivating

employees,directingothers,lectingthe

mosteffectivecommunicationchannels,and

resolvingconflicts

Managementrole:1)interpersonal(人际角色)

Figurehead(头面人物)Leader(领导者)Liaison(联络人)

2)informational(信息传递者)

Monitor(监控者)Disminator(传递者)Spokesperson(发言人)

3)Decisional(决策角色)

Entrepreneur(创业者)Disturbancehandler(混乱处理者)

Resourceallocator(资源分配者)Negotiator(谈判者)

Managementskills:1)Technicalskills

Theabilitytoapplyspecializedknowledgeorexperti〔专门

技术〕.

2)Humanskills

Theabilitytoworkwith,understand,andmotivateotherpeople,

bothindividuallyandingroups.

3)Conceptualskills

Thementalabilitytoanalyzeanddiagno(诊断)complex

situations.

iveversusSuccessfulManagerialActivities

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1)Traditionalmanagement

Decisionmaking,planning,andcontrolling

2)Communication

Exchangingroutine(例行的)informationandprocessingpaperwork

3)Humanresourcemanagement

Motivating,disciplining,managingconflict,staffing(人员指挥),andtraining

4)Networking

Socializing,politicking(政治活动),andinteracting(相互影响)withothers

ngesandOpportunitiesforOB

1)RespondingtoGlobalization

Increadforeignassignments

Workingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures

Overeingmovementofjobstocountrieswithlow-costlabor

2)ManagingWorkforceDiversity(差异，多样性)

Embracingdiversity

Changingdemographics〔人口〕

Implicationsformanagers

Recognizingandrespondingtodifferences

3)ImprovingQualityandProductivity

Qualitymanagement(QM)

Processreengineering

4)RespondingtotheLaborShortage

Changingworkforcedemographics

Fewerskilledlaborers

Earlyretirementsandolderworkers

5)ImprovingCustomerService

Increadexpectationofrvicequality

Customer-responsivecultures

6)ImprovingPeopleSkills

7)Empowering(授权)People

8)Stimulating(刺激)Innovation(改革)andChange

9)Copingwith“Temporariness(临时性)〞

10)WorkinginNetworkedOrganizations

11)HelpingEmployeesBalanceWork/LifeConflicts

12)ImprovingEthical(伦理的)Behavior

ndentanddependentvariables

1)Dependentvariable:Aresponthatisaffectedbyanindependentvariable.

Productivity

Aperformancemeasurethatincludeffectivenessand

efficiency

Effectiveness

Achievementofgoals

Efficiency

Theratioofeffectiveoutputtotheinputrequiredto

achieveit

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Abnt

Thefailuretoreporttowork

Turnover

Thevoluntaryandinvoluntarypermanentwithdrawalfroman

organization

Organizational

citizenshipbehavior

Discretionarybehaviorthatisnotpartofanemployee’s

formaljobrequirements,butthatneverthelesspromotes

theeffectivefunctioningoftheorganization

Jobsatisfaction

Ageneralattitudetowardone’sjob,thedifference

betweentheamountofrewardworkersreceiveandtheamount

theybelievetheyshouldreceive

2)Independentvariable

1)individual-levelvariables个体水平变量

人们带着不同的特点进入组织，这些特点将影响到他们在工作中的行为。比拟明显的特点包

括：个体的或传记的特征〔年龄、性别、婚姻状况等〕，人格特征，在情绪框架，价值观与

态度和根本的能力水平。自变量的每项因素——传记特点biographicalcharacteristics、

能力ability、价值观values、态度attitudes、人格以与情绪personality。另外四个个

体水平的变量也会影响到员工的行为：知觉perception、个体决策individualdecision

making、学习和动机learningandmotivation。

2)Group-levelvariables群体水平变量

人们在群体中的行为远比个人单独活动的总和要复杂。如果考虑到人体在群体中的行为与其

独处时的行为不一样，我们的模型就更加复杂了。第8章为理解群体行为动力学打下了根底，

第9章我们把对群体的理解应用于对有效工作团队的设计。

3)Organizationsystemslevelvariables组织系统水平的变量

当我们把正式结构参加到前面有关个体和群体的知识中时，组织行为就到达了复杂性和成熟

性的最高水平。这一水平中的很多变量都对因变量如正式组织、工作流程、工作岗位的设计、

组织中的人力资源政策和实践活动以与部文化有影响。

Chapter3

des

1)Definition:Evaluativestatementsorjudgmentsconcerningobjects,people,or

events.

价值观代表了人们最根本的信念：从个体或社会的角度来着，某种具体的行为模式或存在的

最终状态比与之相反的行为模式或存在状态更可取。这个定义包含着判断的成分，反映出个

体关于正确和错误、好与坏、可取和不可取的看法与观念。

2)ABC

AffectiveComponent:Theemotionaloffeelinggmentofanattitude.

BehavioralComponent:

Anintentiontobehaveinacertainwaytowardsomeoneor

something.

CognitiveComponent:Theopinionorbeliefgmentofanattitude.

tingVariables

●Importanceoftheattitude

●Specificityoftheattitude

●Accessibilityoftheattitude

●Socialpressuresontheindividual

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●Directexperiencewiththeattitude

fAttitudes

●JobSatisfaction:Acollectionofpositiveand/ornegativefeelingsthatan

individualholdstowardhisorherjob.

●JobInvolvement:Identifyingwiththejob,activelyparticipatinginit,and

consideringperformanceimportanttolf-worth.

●OrganizationalCommitment:Identifyingwithaparticularorganizationandits

goals,andwishingtomaintainmembershipintheorganization.

●PerceivedOrganizationalSupport(POS):Degreetowhichemployeesfeelthe

organizationcaresabouttheirwell-being.

●EmployeeEngagement:Anindividual’sinvolvementwith,satisfactionwith,and

enthusiasmfortheorganization.

loyeesCanExpressDissatisfaction

●Exit:Behaviordirectedtowardleavingtheorganization.

●voice:Activeandconstructiveattemptstoimproveconditions

●Loyalty:Passivelywaitingforconditionstoimprove

●Neglect:Allowingconditionstoworn

isfaction

1)Theeffectonemployeeperformance

◇SatisfactionandProductivity

→satisfiedworkersarenotnecessarilymoreproductive

→Workerproductivityishigherinorganizationswithmoresatisfiedworkers.

◇SatisfactionandAbnteeism

→Satisfiedemployeeshavefeweravoidableabnces

◇SatisfactionandTurnover

→Satisfiedemployeesarelesslikelytoquit

→Organizationtakeactiontoretainhighperformersandtoweedoutlowerperformers

2)SatisfactionandOrganizationalCitizenshipBehavior(OCB)

◇Satisfiedemployeeswhofeelfairlytreatedbyandaretrustingoftheorganization

aremorewillingtoengageinbehaviorsthatgobeyondthenormalexpectations

oftheirjob.

3)JobsatisfactionandCustomersatisfaction

◇Satisfiedemployeesincreacustomersatisfactionbecau:

→Theyaremorefriendly,upbeatandresponsive

→Theyarelesslikelytoturnoverwhichhelpsbuildlong-termcustomer

relationships

→Theyareexperienced

◇Dissatisfactioncustomersincreaemployeejobdissatisfaction.

Chapter4

onality

●TypeA’s

1)arealwaysmoving,walking,andeatingrapidly

2)feelimpatientwiththerateatwhichmosteventstakeplace

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3)strivetothinkordotwoormorethingsatonce

4)cannotcopewithleisuretime

5)areobsdwithnumbers,measuringtheirsuccessintermsofhowmanyorhow

muchofeverythingtheyacquire

●TypeB’s

1)neversufferfromanoftimeurgencywithitsaccompanyingimpatience

2)feelnoneedtodisplayordiscusithertheirachievementsoraccomplishments

3)playforfunandrelaxation,ratherthantoexhibittheirsuperiorityatanycost

4)canrelaxwithoutguilt

ality

1)Definition:Thesumtotalofwaysinwhichanindividualreactsandinteracts

withothers

2)PersonalityTraits:Enduringcharacteristicsthatdescribeanindividual’s

behavior

3)PersonalityDeterminants:HeredityEnvironmentSituation

(Myers-BriggsTypeIndicator)

●能量获取：Extraversion(E)~Introversion(I)外倾/倾

●接收信息：Sensing(S)~Intuition(N)感觉/直觉

●处理信息：Thinking(T)~Feeling(F)思考/情感

●生活方式：Judging(J)~Perceiving(P)判断/知觉

FiveModelofPersonalityDimensions

1)Extroversion:Sociable,gregarious,andasrtive

2)Agreeableness:Good-natured,cooperative,andtrusting

3)Conscientiousness:Responsible,dependable,persistent,andorganized

4)EmotionalStability:Calm,lf-confident,cure(positive)versusnervous,

depresd,andincure(negative)

5)Opennesstoexperience:Imaginativeness,artistic,nsitivity,and

intellectualism

ersonalityAttributesInfluencingOB

1)Locusofcontrol:Thedegreetowhichpeoplebelievetheyaremastersoftheir

ownfate

●Internals:Individualswhobelievethattheycontrolwhathappenstothem

●Externals:Individualswhobelievethatwhathappenstothemiscontrolledby

outsideforcessuchasluckorchance

2)Machiavellianism:Degreetowhichanindividualispragmatic,maintainemotional

distance,andbelievesthatendscanjustifymeans.

◇ConditionsFavoringhighMach

→Directinteraction

→minimalrulesandregulations

→Emotionsdistractforothers

3)Self-esteem:Individuals’degressoflikingordislikingthemlves

4)Self-monitoring:Apersonalitytraitthatmeasuresanindividual’sabilityto

adjusthisorherbehaviortoexternal,situationalfactors

5)Risktaking

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●HighRisk-takingManagers

◇Makequickerdecisions

◇Ulessinformationtomakedecisions

◇Operateinsmallerandmoreentrepreneurialorganizations

●LowRisk-takingManagers

◇Areslowertomakedecisions

◇Requiremoreinformationbeforemakingdecisions

◇Existinlargerorganizationswithstableenvironments

6)TypeApersonality

1)Definition:Basicconvictionsthataspecificmodeofconductorend-stateof

existenceispersonallyorsociallypreferabletoanoppositeorconvermode

ofconductorend-stateofexistence.

2)ValueSystem:Ahierarchybadonarankingofanindividual’svaluesinterms

oftheirintensity.

3)ImportanceofValues

●Provideunderstandingoftheattitudes,motivation,andbehaviorsofindividuals

andcultures

●Influenceourperceptionoftheworldaroundus

●Reprentinterpretationsof“right〞and“wrong〞

●Implythatsomebehaviorsoroutcomesarepreferredoverothers

4)TypesofValues

●TerminalValues:Desirableend-statesofexistence;thegoalsthatapersonwould

liketoachieveduringhisorherlifetime

●InstrumentalValues:Preferablemodesofbehaviorormeansofachievingone’s

terminalvalues

de’sFrameworkforAsssingCultures(霍夫斯泰德评估文化的架构)

五个纬度

●PowerDistance权力距离

◇Theextenttowhichasocietyacceptsthatpowerininstitutionsandorganizations

isdistributedunequally.

一个国家的人民对于机构和组织的权力分配不平等这一事实接纳和认可程度

→lowdistance:relativelyequaldistribution

→highdistance:extremelyunequaldistribution

●Individualismversuscollectivism个人主义与集体主义

◇Individualism:Thedegreetowhichpeopleprefertoactasindividualsratherthan

amemberofgroups.

个人主义指的是一个国家的人民喜欢以个体为单元的活动而不是成为群体成员进展活动

的程度

◇Collectivism:Atightsocialframeworkinwhichpeopleexpectotheringroupsof

whichtheyareparttolookafterthemandprotectthem

●Achievementversusnurturing生活数量和生活质量

◇Achievement:Theextenttowhichsocietalvaluesarecharacterizedby

asrtiveness,materialismandcompetition.

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生活数量指的是人们看重积极进取、金钱与物质的获取与拥有、竞争的程度

◇Nurturing:Theextenttowhichsocietalvaluemphasizerelationshipsandconcern

forothers

生活质量是指人们重视关系，并对他人幸福表示敏感和关心的程度

●UncertaintyAvoidance不确定性躲避

Theextenttowhichasocietyfeelsthreatenedbyuncertainandambiguoug

situationsandtriestoavoidthem.

一个国家的人民喜欢结构化而不是非结构化情境的程度。在不确定性躲避上得分高的国家，

人们的焦虑水平更高、它表现为更明显的紧、压力和攻击性。

●Long-termversusshort-termorientation长期与短期取向

◇Long-termOrientation:Anationalcultureattributethatemphasizesthefuture,

thrift,andpersistence.

生活在长期取向文化中的人们，总是想到未来，且看重节省与持久。

◇Short-termOrientation:Anationalcultureattributethatemphasizesthepastand

prent,respectfortradition,andfulfillingsocialobligations.

短期取向的人们看重的是过去与现在，强调对传统的尊重以与社会义务履行。

beframeworkforasssingcultures

1)Asrtiveness

2)FutureOrientation

3)Genderdifferentiation

4)Uncertaintyavoidance

5)Powerdistance

6)Individual/collectivism

7)In-groupcollectivism

8)Performanceorientation

9)Humaneorientation

Chapter5

tion:Definitionandimportance

1)Definition:Aprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirnsory

impressionsinordertogivemeaningtotheirenvironment

2)Importance:Whatoneperceivescanbesubstantiallydifferentfromobjective

reality,people’sbehaviorisbadontheirperceptionofwhat

realityis,notrealityitlf.

utionTheory归因理论

1)Perceptionofaperson’sactioninfluencedbytheassumptionswemakeabout

theperson’sinternalstate.

2)Whenindividualsobrvebehavior,theyattempttodeterminewhetheritis

internallyorexternallycaud.

3)Internallycaudbehaviors:underthepersonalcontroloftheindividual.

4)Distinctiveness:whetheranindividualdisplaysdifferentbehaviorsindifferent

situation.

5)Connsus:ifeveryonefacedwithasimilarttingrespondsinthesameway.

Consistency:doesthepersonrespondthesamewayovertime.

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6)Fundamentalattributionerror:thetendencytounderestimatetheinfluenceof

externalfactors-whenmakingjudgementaboutothers’

utsinjudgingothers

1)Makeaccurateperceptionrapidly

2)Selectiveperception:peoplelectivelyinterpretwhattheyebadontheir

interests,background,experience,andattitudes.

3)Haloaffect(晕轮效应):Drawingageneralimpressionaboutanindividualbad

onasinglecharacteristic.

当我们以个体的某一种特征〔如智力、社会活动力、外貌〕为根底，从而形成对一个人

的总体印象时，我们就受到晕轮效应的影响。

4)Contrasteffects:Evaluationsofaperson’scharacteristicsthatareaffected

bycomparisonswithotherpeoplerecentlyencounteredwhorankhigherorlower

onthesamecharacteristic.

5)Projection:Attributingone’sowncharacteristicstootherpeople.(take

homogeneityforgranted)

6)Stereotyping:Judgingsomeoneonthebasisofone’sperceptionofthegroup

towhichthatpersonbelongs

7)1stimpression,recent

imizingD-MModel

1)Definition:Thedecribeshowindividualsshouldbehavetomaximizesomeoutcome

2)Steps:

●Ascertaintheneedfordecision-making

●Identifythedecisioncriteria

●Allocateweighttothecriteria

●Develop,evaluatethealternatives

●Selectthebest

3)AssumptionoftheOptimizingModelSimple,well-structured

Rationality:Choicesthatareconsistentandvalue-maximizing

4)Fullyobjectiveandlogical

5)Goaloriented(compatible),criteriat,alloptionsareknown,Preferences

areclear,constant,solutioncanbefound(finalchoice)

6)Predictionfromthemodel-stableovertime

ativeD-Mmodel

1)TheSatisfactionModel

●Complexity,highuncertainty

●AD-Mmodelwhereadecisionmakerchoosthe1stsolutionthatis“goodenough〞,

thatissatisfactoryandsufficient

●Boundedrationality:Individualsmakedecisionsbyconstructingsimplifiedmodel

thatextracttheesntialfeaturesfromproblemswithoutcapturingalltheir

complexity.

2)TheImplicitFavoriteModel

●AD-Mmodelwherethedecisionmakerimplicitlylectsapreferredalternative

earltinthedecisionprocessandbiastheevaluationofallotherchoices.

tIssuesinD-M

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1)Ethicalcriteria

2)Differentculture

3)Escalationofcommitment

Bias

1)OverconfidenceBias

2)AnchoringBias:Atendencytofixateoninitialinformation,fromwhichwethen

failtoadequatelyadjustforsubquentinformation.

3)ConfirmationBias:Thetendencytoekoutinformationthatreaffirmspast

choicesandtodiscountinformationthatcontradictspastjudgments.

4)AvailabilityBias:Thetendencyforpeopletobatheirjudgmentsoninformation

thatisreadilyavailabletothem.

5)ReprentativeBias:Asssingthelikelihoodofanoccurrencebyinappropriately

consideringthecurrentsituationasidenticaltoonesinthepast.

6)Escalationofcommitment:Anincreadcommitmenttoapreviousdecisioninspite

ofnegativeinformation.

7)Randomnesrror:Thetendencyofindividualstobelievethattheycanpredict

theoutcomeofrandomevents.

8)Winner’scur:Adecision-makingdictumthatarguesthatthewinning

participantsinanauctiontypicallypaytoomuchforthewinningitem.

9)Hindsightbias:Thetendencyforustobelievefallythatwe’dhaveaccurately

predictedtheoutcomeofanevent,afterthatoutcomeisactuallyknown.

10)Intuitivedecisionmaking:Anunconsciousprocesscreatedoutofdistilled

experience.

Chapter6

ngMotivation:Theprocessthataccountforanindividual’sintensity,

direction,andpersistenceofefforttowardattainingagoal.

◇KeyElements

→Intensity:howhardapersontries

→Direction:towardbeneficialgoal

→Persistence:howlongapersontries

dualMotivationProcess

1)Need:someinternalstatethatmakescertainoutcomesappearattractive.

2)Process:unsatisfiedneed—tension—drives—arch—behavior--satisfied

need--reductionoftension-newunsatisfiedneed

chyofNeedsTheory(Maslow)

1)Hierarchyofneedstheory:Thereisahierarchyoffiveneeds-physiological,

safety,social,esteem,andlf-actualization;aachneedissubstantially

satisfied,thenextneedbecomesdominant.

2)Self-Actualization:Thedrivetobecomewhatoneiscapableofbecoming.

’sHierarchyofNeeds

1)Lower-OrderNeeds:Needsthataresatisfiedexternally;physiologicalandsafety

needs.

2)High-OrderNeeds:Needsthataresatisfiedinternally;social,esteem,and

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lf-actalizationneeds.

XandTheoryY(DouglasMcGregor)

1)TheoryX:Assumesthatemployeesdislikework,lackambition,avoid

responsibility,andmustbedirectedandcoercedtoperform.

2)TheoryY:Assumesthatemployeeslikework,ekresponsibility,arecapableof

makingdecisions,andexercilf-directionandlf-controlwhencommitted

toagoal.

ory(ClaytonAlderfer)

1)Existence:provisionofbasicmaterialrequirements.

2)Relatedness:desireforrelationships.

3)Growth:desireforpersonaldevelopment.

◇Concepts:her-level

needcannotbefulfilled,thedesiretosatisfyalower-levelneedincreas.

cClelland’sTheoryofNeeds

1)NeedforAchievement:Thedrivetoexcel,toachieveinrelationtoatof

standards,tostrivetosucceed.

2)NeedforAffiliation:Thedesireforfriendlyandclopersonalrelationships.

3)NeedforPower:Theneedtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothave

behavedotherwi.

rcementTheory:Theassumptionthatbehaviorisafunctionofits

conquences.

◇Concepts:

→Behaviorinvironmentallycaud.

→Behaviorcanbemodified(reinforced)byproviding(controlling)conquences.

→Reinforcedbehaviortendstoberepeated.

ignTheory

1)JobCharacteristicsModel:Identifiedfivejobcharacteristicsandtheir

relationshiptopersonalandworkoutcomes.

◇Characteristics:

→Skillvariety:Thedegreetowhichajobrequiresavarietyofdifferent

activities.

→Taskidentity:Thedegreetowhichthejobrequirescompletionofawholeand

identifiablepeceofwork

→Tasksignificance:Thedegreetowhichthejobhasasubstantialimpactonthe

livesorworkofotherpeople.

→Autonomy:Thedegreetowhichthejobprovidessubstantialfreedomanddiscretion

totheindividualinschedulingtheworkandindeterminingtheproceduresto

beudincarryingitout.

→Feedback:Thedegreetowhichcarryingouttheworkactivitiesrequiredbyajob

resultsintheindividualobtainingdirectandclearinformationaboutthe

effectivenessofhisorherperformance.

2)JobCharacteristicsModel

◇Jobswithskillvariety,taskidentity,tasksignificance,autonomy,andforwhich

feedbackofresultsisgiven,directlyaffectthreepsychologicalstatesof

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employees:

→Knowledgeofresults

→Meaningfulnessofwork

→Personalfeelingsofresponsibilityforresults

◇Increasinthepsychologicalstatesresultinincreadmotivation,

performance,andjobsatisfaction.

3)ComputingaMotivatingPotentialScore

Theory:

1)Individualscomparetheirjobinputsandoutcomeswiththoofthersandthen

respondtoeliminateanyinequities.

◇ReferentComparisons:

→Self-inside

→Self-outside

→Other-inside

→Other-outside

2)Choicesfordealingwithinequity:

●Changeinputs(slackoff)

●Changeoutcomes(increaoutput)

●Distort/changeperceptionsoflf

●Distort/changeperceptionsofothers

●Chooadifferentreferentperson

●Leavethefield(quitthejob)

3)DistributiveJustice:Perceivedfairnessoftheamountandallocationofrewards

amongindividuals.

ProceduralJustice:Theperceivedfairnessoftheprocesstodeterminethe

distributionofrewards.

ancyTheory

1)Thestrengthofatendencytoactinacertainwaydependsonthestrengthof

anexpectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandonthe

attractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.

2)Relationship

◇Effort-PerformanceRelationship

→Theprobabilitythatexertingagivenamountofeffortwillleadtoperformance.

◇Performance-RewardRelationship

→Thebeliefthatperformingataparticularlevelwillleadtotheattainmentof

adesiredoutcome.

◇Rewards-PersonalGoalsRelationship

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→Thedegreetowhichorganizationalrewardssatisfyanindividual’sgoalsorneeds

andtheattractivenessofpotentialrewardsfortheindividual.

ship

1)Leadership:Theabilitytoinfluenceagrouptowardtheachievementofgoals.

2)Management:Uofauthorityinherentindesignatedformalranktoobtain

compliancefromorganizationalmembers.

heories

1)TraitsTheoriesofLeadership:Theoriesthatconsiderpersonality,social,

physical,orintellectualtraitstodifferentiateleadersfromnon-leaders.

2)LeadershipTraits:

●Ambitionandenergy

●Thedesiretolead

●Honestandintegrity

●Self-confidence

●Intelligence

●Highlf-monitoring

●Job-relevantknowledge

3)Limitations:

●Nouniversaltraitsfoundthatpredictleadershipinallsituations.

●Traitspredictbehaviorbetterin“weak〞than“strong〞situations.

●Unclearevidenceofthecauandeffectofrelationshipofleadershipandtraits.

●Betterpredictoroftheappearanceofleadershipthandistinguishingeffective

andineffectiveleaders.

oralTheories

●BehavioralTheoriesofLeadership:Theoriesproposingthatspecificbehaviors

differentiateleadersfromnon-leaders.

◇Traittheory:Leadersareborn,notmade

◇Behavioraltheory:Leadershiptraitscanbetaught

ateStudies

1)InitiatingStructure：Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytodefineand

structurehisorherroleandthoofsub-ordinatesinthearchforgoal

attainment.

2)Consideration:Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytohavejobrelationships

characterizedbymutualtrust,respectforsubordinate’sideas,andregardfor

theirfeelings.

sityofMichiganStudies

1)Employee-OrientedLeader:Emphasizinginterpersonalrelations;takingapersonal

interestintheneedsofemployeesandacceptingindividualdifferencesamong

members.

2)Production-OrientedLeader:Onewhoemphasizestechnicalortaskaspectsofthe

job.

gencyTheories

1)Fiedler’sContingencyModel:Thetheorythateffectivegroupsdependonaproper

matchbetweenaleader’sstyleofinteractingwithsubordinatesandthedegree

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towhichthesituationgivescontrolandinfluencetotheleader.

2)LeastPreferredCo-Worker(LPC):Aninstrumentthatpurportstomeasurewhether

apersonistaskorrelationship-oriented.

r’sModel:DefiningtheSituation

1)Leader-MemberRelations:Thedegreeofconfidence,trust,andrespect

subordinateshaveintheirleader.

2)TaskStructure:Thedegreetowhichthejobassignmentsareprocedurized.

3)PositionPower:Influencederivedfromone’sformalstructuralpositioninthe

organization;includespowertohire,fire,discipline,promote,andgivesalary

increas.

iveResourceTheory

1)Atheoryofleadershipthatstatesthatstresscanunfavorablyaffectasituation

andthatintelligenceandexperiencecanlesntheinfluenceofstressonthe

leader.

2)RearchSupport:

●Lessintelligentindividualsperformbetterinleadershiprolesunderhighstress

thandomoreintelligentindividuals.

●Lesxperiencedpeopleperformbetterinleadershiprolesunderlowstressthan

domoreexperiencedpeople.

–MemberExchangeTheory

Leaderscreatein-groupsandout-groups,andsubordinateswithin-groupstatus

willhavehigherperformancerating,lessturnover,andgreaterjobsatisfaction.

Chapter8

ngandClassifyingGroups

1)Definition:Twoormoreindividualsinteractingandinterdependent,whohave

cometogethertoachieveparticularobjectives.

2)Classify:

●FormalGroup:Adesignatedworkgroupdefinedbytheorganization’sstructure

◇CommandGroup:Agroupcompodoftheindividualswhoreportdirectlytoagiven

manager.

◇TaskGroup:Thoworkingtogethertocompleteajobortask

●InformalGroup:Agroupthatisneitherformallystructurednoworganizationally

determinedappearsinrespontotheneedforsocialcontact

◇InterestGroup:Thoworkingtogethertoattainaspecificobjectivewithwhich

eachisconcerned

◇FriendshipGroup:Thobroughttogetherbecautheyshareoneormorecommon

characteristics.

e-StageModelofGroupDevelopment

1)FormingStage:

Thefirststageingroupdevelopment,characterizedbymuch

uncertainty.

2)StormingStage:

Thecondstageingroupdevelopment,characterizedby

intragroupconflict.

3)NormingStage:Thethirdstageingroupdevelopment,characterizedbyclo

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relationshipsandcohesiveness.

4)Performing

Stage:

Thefourthstageingroupdevelopment,whenthegroupis

fullyfunctional.

5)Adjourning

Stage:

Thefinalstageingroupdevelopmentfortemporarygroups,

characterizedbyconcernwithwrappingupactivitiesrather

thanperformance.

tructure

1)Roles:Atofexpectedbehaviorpatternsattributedtosomeoneoccupyinga

givenpositioninasocialunit.

●RoleIdentity:Certainattitudesandbehaviorsconsistentwitharole

●RolePerception:Anindividual’sviewofhowheorsheissuppodtoactina

givensituation.

●RoleExpectations:Howothersbelieveapersonshouldactinagivensituation.

●PsychologicalContract:Anunwrittenagreementthattsoutwhatmanagement

expectsfromtheemployeeandviceversa.

●RoleConflict:Asituationinwhichanindividualisconfrontedbydivergentrole

expectations

2)Norms:Acceptablestandardsofbehaviorwithinagroupthataresharedbythe

group’smembers.

●ClassofNorms:

◇Performancenorms

◇Appearancenorms

◇Socialarrangementnorms

◇Allocationofresourcesnorms

●Conformity:Adjustingone’sbehaviortoalignwiththenormsofthegroup

●ReferenceGroups:Importantgroupstowhichindividualsbelongorhopetobelong

andwithwhonormsindividualsarelikelytoconform.

3)Status:Asociallydefinedpositionorrankgiventogroupsorgroupmembersby

others.

GroupNorms

StatusEquityGroupMemberStatus

Culture

4)Size:

●SocialLoafing:Thetendencyforindividualstoexpendlesffortwhenworking

collectivelythanwhenworkingindividually

●Otherconclusions:

◇Oddnumbergroupsdobetterthaneven

◇Groupsof7or9performbetteroverallthanlargerorsmallergroups

5)Cohesiveness:Degreetowhichgroupmembersareattractedtoeachotherandare

motivatedtostayinthegroup

●Increasinggroupcohesiveness:

◇Makethegroupsmaller

◇Encourageagreementwithgroupgoals

◇Increatimemembersspendtogether

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◇Increagroupstatusandadmissiondifficultly

◇Stimulatecompetitionwithothergroups

◇Giverewardstothegroup,notindividuals

◇Physicallyisolatethegroup