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OrganizationBehavior
Chapter1
zationalbehavior(OB):Afieldofstudythatinvestigatestheimpactthat
individuals,groupsandstructurehaveonbehaviorwithinorganization,forthe
purpoofapplyingsuchknowledgetowardimprovinganorganization’s
effectiveness
rsdo
Management
function
Planning
Aprocessthatincludesdefininggoals,
establishingstrategy(策略),and
developingplanstocoordinate〔调整〕
activities
Controlling
Monitoringactivitiestoensuretheyare
beingaccomplishedasplannedand
correctinganysignificantdeviations〔背
离〕.
Organizing
Determiningwhattasksaretobedone,who
istodothem,howthetasksaretobe
grouped,whoreportstowhom,andwhere
decisionsaretobemade.
Leading
Afunctionthatincludesmotivating
employees,directingothers,lectingthe
mosteffectivecommunicationchannels,and
resolvingconflicts
Managementrole:1)interpersonal(人际角色)
Figurehead(头面人物)Leader(领导者)Liaison(联络人)
2)informational(信息传递者)
Monitor(监控者)Disminator(传递者)Spokesperson(发言人)
3)Decisional(决策角色)
Entrepreneur(创业者)Disturbancehandler(混乱处理者)
Resourceallocator(资源分配者)Negotiator(谈判者)
Managementskills:1)Technicalskills
Theabilitytoapplyspecializedknowledgeorexperti〔专门
技术〕.
2)Humanskills
Theabilitytoworkwith,understand,andmotivateotherpeople,
bothindividuallyandingroups.
3)Conceptualskills
Thementalabilitytoanalyzeanddiagno(诊断)complex
situations.
iveversusSuccessfulManagerialActivities
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1)Traditionalmanagement
Decisionmaking,planning,andcontrolling
2)Communication
Exchangingroutine(例行的)informationandprocessingpaperwork
3)Humanresourcemanagement
Motivating,disciplining,managingconflict,staffing(人员指挥),andtraining
4)Networking
Socializing,politicking(政治活动),andinteracting(相互影响)withothers
ngesandOpportunitiesforOB
1)RespondingtoGlobalization
Increadforeignassignments
Workingwithpeoplefromdifferentcultures
Overeingmovementofjobstocountrieswithlow-costlabor
2)ManagingWorkforceDiversity(差异,多样性)
Embracingdiversity
Changingdemographics〔人口〕
Implicationsformanagers
Recognizingandrespondingtodifferences
3)ImprovingQualityandProductivity
Qualitymanagement(QM)
Processreengineering
4)RespondingtotheLaborShortage
Changingworkforcedemographics
Fewerskilledlaborers
Earlyretirementsandolderworkers
5)ImprovingCustomerService
Increadexpectationofrvicequality
Customer-responsivecultures
6)ImprovingPeopleSkills
7)Empowering(授权)People
8)Stimulating(刺激)Innovation(改革)andChange
9)Copingwith“Temporariness(临时性)〞
10)WorkinginNetworkedOrganizations
11)HelpingEmployeesBalanceWork/LifeConflicts
12)ImprovingEthical(伦理的)Behavior
ndentanddependentvariables
1)Dependentvariable:Aresponthatisaffectedbyanindependentvariable.
Productivity
Aperformancemeasurethatincludeffectivenessand
efficiency
Effectiveness
Achievementofgoals
Efficiency
Theratioofeffectiveoutputtotheinputrequiredto
achieveit
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Abnt
Thefailuretoreporttowork
Turnover
Thevoluntaryandinvoluntarypermanentwithdrawalfroman
organization
Organizational
citizenshipbehavior
Discretionarybehaviorthatisnotpartofanemployee’s
formaljobrequirements,butthatneverthelesspromotes
theeffectivefunctioningoftheorganization
Jobsatisfaction
Ageneralattitudetowardone’sjob,thedifference
betweentheamountofrewardworkersreceiveandtheamount
theybelievetheyshouldreceive
2)Independentvariable
1)individual-levelvariables个体水平变量
人们带着不同的特点进入组织,这些特点将影响到他们在工作中的行为。比拟明显的特点包
括:个体的或传记的特征〔年龄、性别、婚姻状况等〕,人格特征,在情绪框架,价值观与
态度和根本的能力水平。自变量的每项因素——传记特点biographicalcharacteristics、
能力ability、价值观values、态度attitudes、人格以与情绪personality。另外四个个
体水平的变量也会影响到员工的行为:知觉perception、个体决策individualdecision
making、学习和动机learningandmotivation。
2)Group-levelvariables群体水平变量
人们在群体中的行为远比个人单独活动的总和要复杂。如果考虑到人体在群体中的行为与其
独处时的行为不一样,我们的模型就更加复杂了。第8章为理解群体行为动力学打下了根底,
第9章我们把对群体的理解应用于对有效工作团队的设计。
3)Organizationsystemslevelvariables组织系统水平的变量
当我们把正式结构参加到前面有关个体和群体的知识中时,组织行为就到达了复杂性和成熟
性的最高水平。这一水平中的很多变量都对因变量如正式组织、工作流程、工作岗位的设计、
组织中的人力资源政策和实践活动以与部文化有影响。
Chapter3
des
1)Definition:Evaluativestatementsorjudgmentsconcerningobjects,people,or
events.
价值观代表了人们最根本的信念:从个体或社会的角度来着,某种具体的行为模式或存在的
最终状态比与之相反的行为模式或存在状态更可取。这个定义包含着判断的成分,反映出个
体关于正确和错误、好与坏、可取和不可取的看法与观念。
2)ABC
AffectiveComponent:Theemotionaloffeelinggmentofanattitude.
BehavioralComponent:
Anintentiontobehaveinacertainwaytowardsomeoneor
something.
CognitiveComponent:Theopinionorbeliefgmentofanattitude.
tingVariables
●Importanceoftheattitude
●Specificityoftheattitude
●Accessibilityoftheattitude
●Socialpressuresontheindividual
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●Directexperiencewiththeattitude
fAttitudes
●JobSatisfaction:Acollectionofpositiveand/ornegativefeelingsthatan
individualholdstowardhisorherjob.
●JobInvolvement:Identifyingwiththejob,activelyparticipatinginit,and
consideringperformanceimportanttolf-worth.
●OrganizationalCommitment:Identifyingwithaparticularorganizationandits
goals,andwishingtomaintainmembershipintheorganization.
●PerceivedOrganizationalSupport(POS):Degreetowhichemployeesfeelthe
organizationcaresabouttheirwell-being.
●EmployeeEngagement:Anindividual’sinvolvementwith,satisfactionwith,and
enthusiasmfortheorganization.
loyeesCanExpressDissatisfaction
●Exit:Behaviordirectedtowardleavingtheorganization.
●voice:Activeandconstructiveattemptstoimproveconditions
●Loyalty:Passivelywaitingforconditionstoimprove
●Neglect:Allowingconditionstoworn
isfaction
1)Theeffectonemployeeperformance
◇SatisfactionandProductivity
→satisfiedworkersarenotnecessarilymoreproductive
→Workerproductivityishigherinorganizationswithmoresatisfiedworkers.
◇SatisfactionandAbnteeism
→Satisfiedemployeeshavefeweravoidableabnces
◇SatisfactionandTurnover
→Satisfiedemployeesarelesslikelytoquit
→Organizationtakeactiontoretainhighperformersandtoweedoutlowerperformers
2)SatisfactionandOrganizationalCitizenshipBehavior(OCB)
◇Satisfiedemployeeswhofeelfairlytreatedbyandaretrustingoftheorganization
aremorewillingtoengageinbehaviorsthatgobeyondthenormalexpectations
oftheirjob.
3)JobsatisfactionandCustomersatisfaction
◇Satisfiedemployeesincreacustomersatisfactionbecau:
→Theyaremorefriendly,upbeatandresponsive
→Theyarelesslikelytoturnoverwhichhelpsbuildlong-termcustomer
relationships
→Theyareexperienced
◇Dissatisfactioncustomersincreaemployeejobdissatisfaction.
Chapter4
onality
●TypeA’s
1)arealwaysmoving,walking,andeatingrapidly
2)feelimpatientwiththerateatwhichmosteventstakeplace
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3)strivetothinkordotwoormorethingsatonce
4)cannotcopewithleisuretime
5)areobsdwithnumbers,measuringtheirsuccessintermsofhowmanyorhow
muchofeverythingtheyacquire
●TypeB’s
1)neversufferfromanoftimeurgencywithitsaccompanyingimpatience
2)feelnoneedtodisplayordiscusithertheirachievementsoraccomplishments
3)playforfunandrelaxation,ratherthantoexhibittheirsuperiorityatanycost
4)canrelaxwithoutguilt
ality
1)Definition:Thesumtotalofwaysinwhichanindividualreactsandinteracts
withothers
2)PersonalityTraits:Enduringcharacteristicsthatdescribeanindividual’s
behavior
3)PersonalityDeterminants:HeredityEnvironmentSituation
(Myers-BriggsTypeIndicator)
●能量获取:Extraversion(E)~Introversion(I)外倾/倾
●接收信息:Sensing(S)~Intuition(N)感觉/直觉
●处理信息:Thinking(T)~Feeling(F)思考/情感
●生活方式:Judging(J)~Perceiving(P)判断/知觉
FiveModelofPersonalityDimensions
1)Extroversion:Sociable,gregarious,andasrtive
2)Agreeableness:Good-natured,cooperative,andtrusting
3)Conscientiousness:Responsible,dependable,persistent,andorganized
4)EmotionalStability:Calm,lf-confident,cure(positive)versusnervous,
depresd,andincure(negative)
5)Opennesstoexperience:Imaginativeness,artistic,nsitivity,and
intellectualism
ersonalityAttributesInfluencingOB
1)Locusofcontrol:Thedegreetowhichpeoplebelievetheyaremastersoftheir
ownfate
●Internals:Individualswhobelievethattheycontrolwhathappenstothem
●Externals:Individualswhobelievethatwhathappenstothemiscontrolledby
outsideforcessuchasluckorchance
2)Machiavellianism:Degreetowhichanindividualispragmatic,maintainemotional
distance,andbelievesthatendscanjustifymeans.
◇ConditionsFavoringhighMach
→Directinteraction
→minimalrulesandregulations
→Emotionsdistractforothers
3)Self-esteem:Individuals’degressoflikingordislikingthemlves
4)Self-monitoring:Apersonalitytraitthatmeasuresanindividual’sabilityto
adjusthisorherbehaviortoexternal,situationalfactors
5)Risktaking
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●HighRisk-takingManagers
◇Makequickerdecisions
◇Ulessinformationtomakedecisions
◇Operateinsmallerandmoreentrepreneurialorganizations
●LowRisk-takingManagers
◇Areslowertomakedecisions
◇Requiremoreinformationbeforemakingdecisions
◇Existinlargerorganizationswithstableenvironments
6)TypeApersonality
1)Definition:Basicconvictionsthataspecificmodeofconductorend-stateof
existenceispersonallyorsociallypreferabletoanoppositeorconvermode
ofconductorend-stateofexistence.
2)ValueSystem:Ahierarchybadonarankingofanindividual’svaluesinterms
oftheirintensity.
3)ImportanceofValues
●Provideunderstandingoftheattitudes,motivation,andbehaviorsofindividuals
andcultures
●Influenceourperceptionoftheworldaroundus
●Reprentinterpretationsof“right〞and“wrong〞
●Implythatsomebehaviorsoroutcomesarepreferredoverothers
4)TypesofValues
●TerminalValues:Desirableend-statesofexistence;thegoalsthatapersonwould
liketoachieveduringhisorherlifetime
●InstrumentalValues:Preferablemodesofbehaviorormeansofachievingone’s
terminalvalues
de’sFrameworkforAsssingCultures(霍夫斯泰德评估文化的架构)
五个纬度
●PowerDistance权力距离
◇Theextenttowhichasocietyacceptsthatpowerininstitutionsandorganizations
isdistributedunequally.
一个国家的人民对于机构和组织的权力分配不平等这一事实接纳和认可程度
→lowdistance:relativelyequaldistribution
→highdistance:extremelyunequaldistribution
●Individualismversuscollectivism个人主义与集体主义
◇Individualism:Thedegreetowhichpeopleprefertoactasindividualsratherthan
amemberofgroups.
个人主义指的是一个国家的人民喜欢以个体为单元的活动而不是成为群体成员进展活动
的程度
◇Collectivism:Atightsocialframeworkinwhichpeopleexpectotheringroupsof
whichtheyareparttolookafterthemandprotectthem
●Achievementversusnurturing生活数量和生活质量
◇Achievement:Theextenttowhichsocietalvaluesarecharacterizedby
asrtiveness,materialismandcompetition.
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生活数量指的是人们看重积极进取、金钱与物质的获取与拥有、竞争的程度
◇Nurturing:Theextenttowhichsocietalvaluemphasizerelationshipsandconcern
forothers
生活质量是指人们重视关系,并对他人幸福表示敏感和关心的程度
●UncertaintyAvoidance不确定性躲避
Theextenttowhichasocietyfeelsthreatenedbyuncertainandambiguoug
situationsandtriestoavoidthem.
一个国家的人民喜欢结构化而不是非结构化情境的程度。在不确定性躲避上得分高的国家,
人们的焦虑水平更高、它表现为更明显的紧、压力和攻击性。
●Long-termversusshort-termorientation长期与短期取向
◇Long-termOrientation:Anationalcultureattributethatemphasizesthefuture,
thrift,andpersistence.
生活在长期取向文化中的人们,总是想到未来,且看重节省与持久。
◇Short-termOrientation:Anationalcultureattributethatemphasizesthepastand
prent,respectfortradition,andfulfillingsocialobligations.
短期取向的人们看重的是过去与现在,强调对传统的尊重以与社会义务履行。
beframeworkforasssingcultures
1)Asrtiveness
2)FutureOrientation
3)Genderdifferentiation
4)Uncertaintyavoidance
5)Powerdistance
6)Individual/collectivism
7)In-groupcollectivism
8)Performanceorientation
9)Humaneorientation
Chapter5
tion:Definitionandimportance
1)Definition:Aprocessbywhichindividualsorganizeandinterprettheirnsory
impressionsinordertogivemeaningtotheirenvironment
2)Importance:Whatoneperceivescanbesubstantiallydifferentfromobjective
reality,people’sbehaviorisbadontheirperceptionofwhat
realityis,notrealityitlf.
utionTheory归因理论
1)Perceptionofaperson’sactioninfluencedbytheassumptionswemakeabout
theperson’sinternalstate.
2)Whenindividualsobrvebehavior,theyattempttodeterminewhetheritis
internallyorexternallycaud.
3)Internallycaudbehaviors:underthepersonalcontroloftheindividual.
4)Distinctiveness:whetheranindividualdisplaysdifferentbehaviorsindifferent
situation.
5)Connsus:ifeveryonefacedwithasimilarttingrespondsinthesameway.
Consistency:doesthepersonrespondthesamewayovertime.
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6)Fundamentalattributionerror:thetendencytounderestimatetheinfluenceof
externalfactors-whenmakingjudgementaboutothers’
utsinjudgingothers
1)Makeaccurateperceptionrapidly
2)Selectiveperception:peoplelectivelyinterpretwhattheyebadontheir
interests,background,experience,andattitudes.
3)Haloaffect(晕轮效应):Drawingageneralimpressionaboutanindividualbad
onasinglecharacteristic.
当我们以个体的某一种特征〔如智力、社会活动力、外貌〕为根底,从而形成对一个人
的总体印象时,我们就受到晕轮效应的影响。
4)Contrasteffects:Evaluationsofaperson’scharacteristicsthatareaffected
bycomparisonswithotherpeoplerecentlyencounteredwhorankhigherorlower
onthesamecharacteristic.
5)Projection:Attributingone’sowncharacteristicstootherpeople.(take
homogeneityforgranted)
6)Stereotyping:Judgingsomeoneonthebasisofone’sperceptionofthegroup
towhichthatpersonbelongs
7)1stimpression,recent
imizingD-MModel
1)Definition:Thedecribeshowindividualsshouldbehavetomaximizesomeoutcome
2)Steps:
●Ascertaintheneedfordecision-making
●Identifythedecisioncriteria
●Allocateweighttothecriteria
●Develop,evaluatethealternatives
●Selectthebest
3)AssumptionoftheOptimizingModelSimple,well-structured
Rationality:Choicesthatareconsistentandvalue-maximizing
4)Fullyobjectiveandlogical
5)Goaloriented(compatible),criteriat,alloptionsareknown,Preferences
areclear,constant,solutioncanbefound(finalchoice)
6)Predictionfromthemodel-stableovertime
ativeD-Mmodel
1)TheSatisfactionModel
●Complexity,highuncertainty
●AD-Mmodelwhereadecisionmakerchoosthe1stsolutionthatis“goodenough〞,
thatissatisfactoryandsufficient
●Boundedrationality:Individualsmakedecisionsbyconstructingsimplifiedmodel
thatextracttheesntialfeaturesfromproblemswithoutcapturingalltheir
complexity.
2)TheImplicitFavoriteModel
●AD-Mmodelwherethedecisionmakerimplicitlylectsapreferredalternative
earltinthedecisionprocessandbiastheevaluationofallotherchoices.
tIssuesinD-M
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1)Ethicalcriteria
2)Differentculture
3)Escalationofcommitment
Bias
1)OverconfidenceBias
2)AnchoringBias:Atendencytofixateoninitialinformation,fromwhichwethen
failtoadequatelyadjustforsubquentinformation.
3)ConfirmationBias:Thetendencytoekoutinformationthatreaffirmspast
choicesandtodiscountinformationthatcontradictspastjudgments.
4)AvailabilityBias:Thetendencyforpeopletobatheirjudgmentsoninformation
thatisreadilyavailabletothem.
5)ReprentativeBias:Asssingthelikelihoodofanoccurrencebyinappropriately
consideringthecurrentsituationasidenticaltoonesinthepast.
6)Escalationofcommitment:Anincreadcommitmenttoapreviousdecisioninspite
ofnegativeinformation.
7)Randomnesrror:Thetendencyofindividualstobelievethattheycanpredict
theoutcomeofrandomevents.
8)Winner’scur:Adecision-makingdictumthatarguesthatthewinning
participantsinanauctiontypicallypaytoomuchforthewinningitem.
9)Hindsightbias:Thetendencyforustobelievefallythatwe’dhaveaccurately
predictedtheoutcomeofanevent,afterthatoutcomeisactuallyknown.
10)Intuitivedecisionmaking:Anunconsciousprocesscreatedoutofdistilled
experience.
Chapter6
ngMotivation:Theprocessthataccountforanindividual’sintensity,
direction,andpersistenceofefforttowardattainingagoal.
◇KeyElements
→Intensity:howhardapersontries
→Direction:towardbeneficialgoal
→Persistence:howlongapersontries
dualMotivationProcess
1)Need:someinternalstatethatmakescertainoutcomesappearattractive.
2)Process:unsatisfiedneed—tension—drives—arch—behavior--satisfied
need--reductionoftension-newunsatisfiedneed
chyofNeedsTheory(Maslow)
1)Hierarchyofneedstheory:Thereisahierarchyoffiveneeds-physiological,
safety,social,esteem,andlf-actualization;aachneedissubstantially
satisfied,thenextneedbecomesdominant.
2)Self-Actualization:Thedrivetobecomewhatoneiscapableofbecoming.
’sHierarchyofNeeds
1)Lower-OrderNeeds:Needsthataresatisfiedexternally;physiologicalandsafety
needs.
2)High-OrderNeeds:Needsthataresatisfiedinternally;social,esteem,and
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lf-actalizationneeds.
XandTheoryY(DouglasMcGregor)
1)TheoryX:Assumesthatemployeesdislikework,lackambition,avoid
responsibility,andmustbedirectedandcoercedtoperform.
2)TheoryY:Assumesthatemployeeslikework,ekresponsibility,arecapableof
makingdecisions,andexercilf-directionandlf-controlwhencommitted
toagoal.
ory(ClaytonAlderfer)
1)Existence:provisionofbasicmaterialrequirements.
2)Relatedness:desireforrelationships.
3)Growth:desireforpersonaldevelopment.
◇Concepts:her-level
needcannotbefulfilled,thedesiretosatisfyalower-levelneedincreas.
cClelland’sTheoryofNeeds
1)NeedforAchievement:Thedrivetoexcel,toachieveinrelationtoatof
standards,tostrivetosucceed.
2)NeedforAffiliation:Thedesireforfriendlyandclopersonalrelationships.
3)NeedforPower:Theneedtomakeothersbehaveinawaythattheywouldnothave
behavedotherwi.
rcementTheory:Theassumptionthatbehaviorisafunctionofits
conquences.
◇Concepts:
→Behaviorinvironmentallycaud.
→Behaviorcanbemodified(reinforced)byproviding(controlling)conquences.
→Reinforcedbehaviortendstoberepeated.
ignTheory
1)JobCharacteristicsModel:Identifiedfivejobcharacteristicsandtheir
relationshiptopersonalandworkoutcomes.
◇Characteristics:
→Skillvariety:Thedegreetowhichajobrequiresavarietyofdifferent
activities.
→Taskidentity:Thedegreetowhichthejobrequirescompletionofawholeand
identifiablepeceofwork
→Tasksignificance:Thedegreetowhichthejobhasasubstantialimpactonthe
livesorworkofotherpeople.
→Autonomy:Thedegreetowhichthejobprovidessubstantialfreedomanddiscretion
totheindividualinschedulingtheworkandindeterminingtheproceduresto
beudincarryingitout.
→Feedback:Thedegreetowhichcarryingouttheworkactivitiesrequiredbyajob
resultsintheindividualobtainingdirectandclearinformationaboutthe
effectivenessofhisorherperformance.
2)JobCharacteristicsModel
◇Jobswithskillvariety,taskidentity,tasksignificance,autonomy,andforwhich
feedbackofresultsisgiven,directlyaffectthreepsychologicalstatesof
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employees:
→Knowledgeofresults
→Meaningfulnessofwork
→Personalfeelingsofresponsibilityforresults
◇Increasinthepsychologicalstatesresultinincreadmotivation,
performance,andjobsatisfaction.
3)ComputingaMotivatingPotentialScore
Theory:
1)Individualscomparetheirjobinputsandoutcomeswiththoofthersandthen
respondtoeliminateanyinequities.
◇ReferentComparisons:
→Self-inside
→Self-outside
→Other-inside
→Other-outside
2)Choicesfordealingwithinequity:
●Changeinputs(slackoff)
●Changeoutcomes(increaoutput)
●Distort/changeperceptionsoflf
●Distort/changeperceptionsofothers
●Chooadifferentreferentperson
●Leavethefield(quitthejob)
3)DistributiveJustice:Perceivedfairnessoftheamountandallocationofrewards
amongindividuals.
ProceduralJustice:Theperceivedfairnessoftheprocesstodeterminethe
distributionofrewards.
ancyTheory
1)Thestrengthofatendencytoactinacertainwaydependsonthestrengthof
anexpectationthattheactwillbefollowedbyagivenoutcomeandonthe
attractivenessofthatoutcometotheindividual.
2)Relationship
◇Effort-PerformanceRelationship
→Theprobabilitythatexertingagivenamountofeffortwillleadtoperformance.
◇Performance-RewardRelationship
→Thebeliefthatperformingataparticularlevelwillleadtotheattainmentof
adesiredoutcome.
◇Rewards-PersonalGoalsRelationship
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→Thedegreetowhichorganizationalrewardssatisfyanindividual’sgoalsorneeds
andtheattractivenessofpotentialrewardsfortheindividual.
ship
1)Leadership:Theabilitytoinfluenceagrouptowardtheachievementofgoals.
2)Management:Uofauthorityinherentindesignatedformalranktoobtain
compliancefromorganizationalmembers.
heories
1)TraitsTheoriesofLeadership:Theoriesthatconsiderpersonality,social,
physical,orintellectualtraitstodifferentiateleadersfromnon-leaders.
2)LeadershipTraits:
●Ambitionandenergy
●Thedesiretolead
●Honestandintegrity
●Self-confidence
●Intelligence
●Highlf-monitoring
●Job-relevantknowledge
3)Limitations:
●Nouniversaltraitsfoundthatpredictleadershipinallsituations.
●Traitspredictbehaviorbetterin“weak〞than“strong〞situations.
●Unclearevidenceofthecauandeffectofrelationshipofleadershipandtraits.
●Betterpredictoroftheappearanceofleadershipthandistinguishingeffective
andineffectiveleaders.
oralTheories
●BehavioralTheoriesofLeadership:Theoriesproposingthatspecificbehaviors
differentiateleadersfromnon-leaders.
◇Traittheory:Leadersareborn,notmade
◇Behavioraltheory:Leadershiptraitscanbetaught
ateStudies
1)InitiatingStructure:Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytodefineand
structurehisorherroleandthoofsub-ordinatesinthearchforgoal
attainment.
2)Consideration:Theextenttowhichaleaderislikelytohavejobrelationships
characterizedbymutualtrust,respectforsubordinate’sideas,andregardfor
theirfeelings.
sityofMichiganStudies
1)Employee-OrientedLeader:Emphasizinginterpersonalrelations;takingapersonal
interestintheneedsofemployeesandacceptingindividualdifferencesamong
members.
2)Production-OrientedLeader:Onewhoemphasizestechnicalortaskaspectsofthe
job.
gencyTheories
1)Fiedler’sContingencyModel:Thetheorythateffectivegroupsdependonaproper
matchbetweenaleader’sstyleofinteractingwithsubordinatesandthedegree
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towhichthesituationgivescontrolandinfluencetotheleader.
2)LeastPreferredCo-Worker(LPC):Aninstrumentthatpurportstomeasurewhether
apersonistaskorrelationship-oriented.
r’sModel:DefiningtheSituation
1)Leader-MemberRelations:Thedegreeofconfidence,trust,andrespect
subordinateshaveintheirleader.
2)TaskStructure:Thedegreetowhichthejobassignmentsareprocedurized.
3)PositionPower:Influencederivedfromone’sformalstructuralpositioninthe
organization;includespowertohire,fire,discipline,promote,andgivesalary
increas.
iveResourceTheory
1)Atheoryofleadershipthatstatesthatstresscanunfavorablyaffectasituation
andthatintelligenceandexperiencecanlesntheinfluenceofstressonthe
leader.
2)RearchSupport:
●Lessintelligentindividualsperformbetterinleadershiprolesunderhighstress
thandomoreintelligentindividuals.
●Lesxperiencedpeopleperformbetterinleadershiprolesunderlowstressthan
domoreexperiencedpeople.
–MemberExchangeTheory
Leaderscreatein-groupsandout-groups,andsubordinateswithin-groupstatus
willhavehigherperformancerating,lessturnover,andgreaterjobsatisfaction.
Chapter8
ngandClassifyingGroups
1)Definition:Twoormoreindividualsinteractingandinterdependent,whohave
cometogethertoachieveparticularobjectives.
2)Classify:
●FormalGroup:Adesignatedworkgroupdefinedbytheorganization’sstructure
◇CommandGroup:Agroupcompodoftheindividualswhoreportdirectlytoagiven
manager.
◇TaskGroup:Thoworkingtogethertocompleteajobortask
●InformalGroup:Agroupthatisneitherformallystructurednoworganizationally
determinedappearsinrespontotheneedforsocialcontact
◇InterestGroup:Thoworkingtogethertoattainaspecificobjectivewithwhich
eachisconcerned
◇FriendshipGroup:Thobroughttogetherbecautheyshareoneormorecommon
characteristics.
e-StageModelofGroupDevelopment
1)FormingStage:
Thefirststageingroupdevelopment,characterizedbymuch
uncertainty.
2)StormingStage:
Thecondstageingroupdevelopment,characterizedby
intragroupconflict.
3)NormingStage:Thethirdstageingroupdevelopment,characterizedbyclo
14/15
relationshipsandcohesiveness.
4)Performing
Stage:
Thefourthstageingroupdevelopment,whenthegroupis
fullyfunctional.
5)Adjourning
Stage:
Thefinalstageingroupdevelopmentfortemporarygroups,
characterizedbyconcernwithwrappingupactivitiesrather
thanperformance.
tructure
1)Roles:Atofexpectedbehaviorpatternsattributedtosomeoneoccupyinga
givenpositioninasocialunit.
●RoleIdentity:Certainattitudesandbehaviorsconsistentwitharole
●RolePerception:Anindividual’sviewofhowheorsheissuppodtoactina
givensituation.
●RoleExpectations:Howothersbelieveapersonshouldactinagivensituation.
●PsychologicalContract:Anunwrittenagreementthattsoutwhatmanagement
expectsfromtheemployeeandviceversa.
●RoleConflict:Asituationinwhichanindividualisconfrontedbydivergentrole
expectations
2)Norms:Acceptablestandardsofbehaviorwithinagroupthataresharedbythe
group’smembers.
●ClassofNorms:
◇Performancenorms
◇Appearancenorms
◇Socialarrangementnorms
◇Allocationofresourcesnorms
●Conformity:Adjustingone’sbehaviortoalignwiththenormsofthegroup
●ReferenceGroups:Importantgroupstowhichindividualsbelongorhopetobelong
andwithwhonormsindividualsarelikelytoconform.
3)Status:Asociallydefinedpositionorrankgiventogroupsorgroupmembersby
others.
GroupNorms
StatusEquityGroupMemberStatus
Culture
4)Size:
●SocialLoafing:Thetendencyforindividualstoexpendlesffortwhenworking
collectivelythanwhenworkingindividually
●Otherconclusions:
◇Oddnumbergroupsdobetterthaneven
◇Groupsof7or9performbetteroverallthanlargerorsmallergroups
5)Cohesiveness:Degreetowhichgroupmembersareattractedtoeachotherandare
motivatedtostayinthegroup
●Increasinggroupcohesiveness:
◇Makethegroupsmaller
◇Encourageagreementwithgroupgoals
◇Increatimemembersspendtogether
15/15
◇Increagroupstatusandadmissiondifficultly
◇Stimulatecompetitionwithothergroups
◇Giverewardstothegroup,notindividuals
◇Physicallyisolatethegroup
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