ogallala

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reisalsoanotherspecialkindofconversationalflow

theirtalktooktheformoftalesandvignettestoldfortheirown.

Sometimeshumorous,sometimessad;allwereasbrightasthe

figuresinthefineneedlepoint.4.

“Thetalesincludedgrotesque,comic,andpoeticdescriptions,charactersketches,

narratives,gustsoffeeling,delicateironies,andastuteobrvations。”

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hetreelinethereisazonethatisgenerallycalledalpine

tundra.■Immediatelyadjacenttothetimberline,thetundra

consistsofafairlycompletecoveroflow-lyingshrubs,herbs,and

grass,whilehigherupthenumberanddiversityofspecies

decreauntilthereismuchbaregroundwithoccasionalmossand

lichensandsomeprostratecushionplants.■Someplantscaneven

hest

plantsintheworldoccurataround6,100metersonMakaluinthe

Himalayas.■Atthisgreatheight,rocks,warmedbythesun,melt

smallsnowdrifts.■

Thixplainshow,forexample,alpinecushionplantshavebeen

foundgrowingatanaltitudeof6,180meters.

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3.■Althoughorigininritualhaslongbeenthemostpopular,itis

bynomeanstheonlytheoryabouthowthetheatercameintobeing.

■Storytellinghasbeenpropodasonealternative.■Underthis

theory,relatingandlisteningtostoriesareenasfundamental

humanpleasures.■Thus,therecallingofanevent(ahunt,battle,

orotherfeat)ilaboratedthroughthenarrator’spantomimeand

impersonationandeventuallythrougheachrolebeingassumedbya

differentperson.

Toenhancetheirlisteners’enjoyment,storytellerscontinually

maketheirstoriesmoreengagingandmemorable.

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thewaterinasampleofwater-saturateddimentorthe

rockwilldrainfromitifthesampleisputinasuitabledry

place.■Butsomewillremain,clingingtoallsolidsurfaces.■It

isheldtherebytheforceofsurfacetensionwithoutwhichwater

woulddraininstantlyfromanywetsurface,leavingittotallydry.

■Thetotalvolumeofwaterinthesaturatedsamplemusttherefore

bethoughtofasconsistingofwaterthatcan,andwaterthat

cannot,drainaway.■

What,then,determineswhatproportionofthewaterstaysand

whatproportiondrainsaway?

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5.■Modernarchitecturalformsgenerallyhavethreeparate

componentscomparabletoelementsofthehumanbody;asupporting

skeletonorframe,anouterskinenclosingtheinteriorspaces,

equipment,similartothebody’svitalorgansandsystems.■The

equipmentincludesplumbing,electricalwiring,hotwater,andair-

conditioning.■Ofcourinearlyarchitecture—suchasigloosand

adobestructures—therewasnosuchequipment,andtheskeletonand

skinwereoftenone.■

However,somemodernarchitecturaldesigns,suchasthousing

foldedplatesofconcreterorair-inflatedstructures,areagain

unifyingskeletonandskin.

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6.■Ecologistsareespeciallyinterestedtoknowwhatfactors

contributetotheresilienceofcommunitiesbecauclimax

communitiesallovertheworldarebeingverelydamagedor

destroyedbyhumanactivities.■Thedestructioncaudbythe

,inthenorthwesternUnited

States,forexample,palesincomparisontothedestructioncaud

byhumans.■Weneedtoknowwhataspectsofacommunityaremost

importanttothecommunity’sresistancetodestruction,aswellas

itsrecovery.■

Infact,damagetotheenvironmentbyhumansisoftenmuchmore

verethandamagebynaturaleventsandprocess.

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ctionoffarmerstotheinevitabledepletionoftheOgallala

vebeenattemptingtoconrvewaterbyirrigating

lessfrequentlyorbyswitchingtocropsthatrequirelesswater.

■Other,however,haveadoptedthephilosophythatitisbesttou

thewaterwhileitisstilleconomicallyprofitabletodosoandto

concentrateonhigh-valuecropssuchascotton.■Theincentiveof

thefarmerswhowishtoconrvewaterisreducedbytheir

knowledgethatmanyoftheirneighborsareprofitingbyusinggreat

amountsofwater,andintheprocessaredrawingdowntheentire

region’swatersupplies.■

Inthefaceoftheupcomingwatersupplycrisis,anumberof

grandioschemeshavebeendevelopedtotransportvast

quantitiesofwaterbycanalorpipelinefromtheMississippi,

theMissouri,ortheArkansasrivers.■Unfortunately,thecost

ofwaterobtainedthroughanyoftheschemeswouldincrea

pumpingcostsatleasttenfold,makingthecostofirrigated

agriculturalproductsfromtheregionuncompetitiveonthe

nationalandinternationalmarkets.

Butevenifuncooperativefarmersweretojoininthe

conrvationefforts,thiswouldonlydelaythedepletionofthe

aquifer.

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heforestinhibitsthegrowthofgrassandothermeadow

plants,theblack-taileddeerbrowsonhuckleberry,salal,

dogwood,sisfair-

epstheblack-taileddeeralivedinthe

harsherasonsofplantdecoyanddormancyOnecompensationfor

nothibernatingisthebuilt-inurgetomigrate.■Deermaymove

fromhigh-elevationbrowareasinsummerdowntothelowland

areasinlatefall.■Evenwithsnowontheground,thehighbushy

understoryixpod;alsosnowandwindbringdownleafybranches

ofcedar,hemlock,redalder,andotherarborealfodder.

■Thenumbersofdeerhavefluctuatedmarkedlysincetheentry

ofEuropeansintoPugetSoundcountry.■Theearlyexplorersand

ttlerstoldofabundantdeerintheearly1800sandyetalmost

inthesamebreathbemoanedthelackofthissucculentgame

animal.

Therefoodisavailableandaccessiblethroughoutthewinter.

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ntingsrestonbarewalls,withnobackdropsor

s,likemanycontemporarypeoples,UpperPaleolithicmenandwomen

believedthatthedrawingofahumanimagecouldcaudeathofinjury,andifthatwereindeedtheir

belief,rexplanationforthe

focusonanimalsmightbethatthepeoplesoughttoimprovetheirluckathunting.■Thistheoryis

suggestedbyevidenceofchipsinthepaintedfigures,perhapsmadebyspearsthrownatthedrawings.

■Butifimprovingtheirhuntingluckwasthechiefmotivationforthepaintings,itisdifficulttoexplainwhy

onlyafewshowsignsofhavingbeenspeared.■Perhapsthepaintingswereinspiredbytheneedto

temstohavereachedapeaktowardtheendoftheUpper

Paleolithicperiod,whentheherdsofgameweredecreasing.■

Therefore,ifthepaintingswereconnectedwithhunting,someotherexplanationisneeded.

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ueddimentation—theprocessofdeposits'ttlingontheabottom—buriestheorganic

matterandsubjectsittohighertemperaturesandpressures,whichconverttheorganicmattertooiland

gas.■Asmuddydimentsarepresdtogether,thegasandsmalldropletsofoilmaybesqueezedout

ofthemudandmaymoveintosandylayersnearby.■Overlongperiodsoftime(millionsofyears),

accumulationsofgasandoilcancollectinthesandylayers.■Bothoilandgasarelessdenthan

water,sotheygenerallytendtoriupwardthroughwater-saturatedrockanddiment.■

Unlesssomethingactstohaltthismigration,thenaturalresourceswilleventuallyreachthe

surface.

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istshaveknownforsometimethatcertainplants,calledhyperaccumulators,canconcentrate

mineralsatlevelsahundredfoldorgreaterthannormal.■Asurveyofknownhyperaccumulators

identifiedthat75percentofthemamasdnickel,cobalt,copper,zinc,mangane,lead,andcadmium

areothermineralsofchoice.■Hyperaccumulatorsruntheentirerangeoftheplantworld.■Theymay

beherbs,shrubs,ortrees.■Manymembersofthemustardfamily,spurgefamily,legumefamily,and

efoundintropicalandsubtropicalareasofthemetals

mayaffordsomeprotectionagainstplant-eatinginctsandmicrobialpathogens.

Certainmineralsaremorelikelytobeaccumulatedinlargequantitiesthanothers.

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ationontheoriginofthePacificislandsbeganassoonasoutsiderncounteredthem;in

theabnceofsolidlinguistic,archaeological,andbiologicaldata,manyfancifulandmutuallyexclusive

cislanderswerevariouslythoughttohavecomefromNorthAmerica,South

America,Egypt,Israel,andIndia,aswellasSoutheastAsia.■Manyoldertheoriesimplicitlydeprecated

thenavigationalabilitiesandoverallculturalcreativityofthePacificislanders.■tonavigateandcolonize

thePacific.■TheyinferredthattheEgyptianvencrosdthePacifictofoundthegreatcivilizationsof

theNewWorld(NorthandSouthAmerica).■In1947NorwegianadventurerThorHeyerdahldriftedon

thebalsa-lograftwestwardwiththewindsandcurrentsacrossthePacificfromSouthAmericatoprove

histheorythatPacificislanderswereNativeAmericans(alsocalledAmericanIndians).

Latertheoriesconcentratedonjourneysintheotherdirection.

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erpretationregardingtheabnceoffossilsduringthisimportant100-million-yearperiodis

thatearlyanimalsweresoftbodiedandsimplydidnotfossilize.■Fossilizationofsoft-bodiedanimalsis

lesslikelythanfossilizationofhard-bodiedanimals,butitdoesoccur.■Conditionsthatpromote

fossilizationofsoft-bodiedanimalsincludeveryrapidcoveringbydimentsthatcreateanenvironment

thatdiscouragesdecomposition.■Infact,fossilbedscontainingsoft-bodiedanimalshavebeenknown

formanyyears.■

Itisrelativelyrarebecauthefossilizationofsoft-bodiedanimalsrequiresaspecialenvironment.

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14.■Watt'ssteamenginesoonshowedwhatitcoulddo.■Itliberatedindustryfromdependenceon

runningwater.■Theengineeliminatedwaterintheminesbydrivingefficientpumps,whichmade

possibledeeperanddeepermining.■ThereadyavailabilityofcoalinspiredWilliamMurdochduringthe

1790stodevelopthefirstnewformofnighttimeilluminationtobediscoveredinamillenniumandahalf.

Coalgasrivaledsmokyoillampsandflickeringcandles,andearlyinthenewcentury,well—to—do

nufacturerswhichhadstarvedfor

fuelwhiledependingoncharcoalalsobenefitedfromever-increasingsuppliesofcoal;blastfurnaces

withecamethe

motiveforceoftheIndustrialRevolutionascoalandironoreweretherawmaterials．

Thefactoriesdidnothavetogotothestreamswhenpowercouldcometofactories.

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ycouldSmithidentifyrockstratabythefossilstheycontained,hecouldalsoeapattern

emerging:certainfossilsalwaysappearinmoreancientdiments,whileothersbegintobeenasthe

stratabecomemorerecent.■Byfollowingthefossils,SmithwasabletoputallthestrataofEngland's

earthintorelativetemporalquence.■Aboutthesametime,GeorgesCuviermadethesamediscovery

whilestudyingtherocksaroundParis.■Soonitwasrealizedthatthisprincipleoffaunal(animal)

successionwasvalidnotonlyinEnglandorFrancebutvirtuallyeverywhere.■Itwasactuallyaprinciple

offloralsuccessionaswell,becauplantsshowedthesametransformationthroughtimeasdidfauna.

LimestonemaybefoundintheCambrianor-300millionyearslater-intheJurassicstratabutatrilobite—

theubiquitousmarinearthropodthathaditsbirthintheCambrian—willneverbefoundinJurassicstrata,

noradinosaurintheCambrian.

Thefindingsofthegeologistsinspiredotherstoexaminetherockandfossilrecordsindifferent

partsoftheworld.

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yourememberaboutyourlifebeforeyouwerethree■Fewpeoplecanrememberanything

thathappenedtothemintheirearlyyears.■Adults'memoriesofthenextfewyearsalsotendtobe

scanty.■Mostpeoplerememberonlyafewevents-usuallyonesthatweremeaningfulanddistinctive,

suchasbeinghospitalizedorasibling’sbirth.■

Otherimportantoccasionsareschoolgraduationsandweddings.

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attitudestoRomancivilizationrangefromtheinfinitelyimpresdtothethoroughdisgusted.■

Asalways,therearethepowerworshippers,especiallyamonghistorians,whoarepredispodto

admirewhateverisstrong,whofeelmoreattractedtothemightofRomethantothesubtletyofGreece.

■Atthesametime,thereisasolidbodyofopinionthatdislikesRome.■Formany,Romeisatbestthe

imitatorandthecontinuatorofGreeceonalargerscale.■Greekcivilizationhadquality;Rome,mere

wastheinventor;Rome,deedwasthe

opinionofsomeofthemoreintellectualRomans.”hadtheGreeksheldnoveltyinsuchdisdainaswe,”

askedHoraceinhipistle,“whatworkofancientdatewouldnowexist”

18.

19.

TheyesteemsymbolsofRomanpower,suchasthemassiveColosum.

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fusionofagricultureandlaterofironwasaccompaniedbyagreatmovementofpeoplewho

eopleprobablyoriginatedineasternNigeria.■Their

migrationmayhavebeentinmotionbyanincreainpopulationcaudbamovementofpeoples

fleeingthedesiccation,ordryingup,oftheSahara.■Theyspokealanguage,prior-Bantu(“Bantu”

means“thepeople”),whichistheparenttongueofalanguageofalargenumberofBantulanguagesstill

howthepeoplespreadoutintocentralandsouthern

Africaremainsamystery,butarchaeologistsbelievethattheirironweaponsallowedthemtoconquer

theirhunting-gatheringopponents,whostilludstoneimplements.■Still,theprocessisuncertain,and

peacefulmigration—orsimplyrapiddemographicgrowth—mayhavealsocaudtheBantuexplosion.■

Thepeoplehadasignificantlinguisticimpactonthecontinentaswell.

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yofTeotihuacán,whichlayabout50kilometersnortheastofmodern-dayMexicoCity,began

eight,betweenabout.150and700,itprobablyhadapopulationofmore

than125,000peopleandcoveredatleast20squarekilometers.■Ithadover2,000apartment

complexes,agreatmarket,alargenumberofindustrialworkshops,anadministrativecenter,anumber

ofmassivereligioudifices,andaregulargridpatternofstreetsandbuildings.■Clearly,muchplanning

andcentralcontrolwereinvolvedintheexpansionandorderingofthisgreatmetropolis.■Moreover,the

cityhadeconomicandperhapsreligiouscontactswithmostpartsofMesoamerica(modernCentral

AmericaandMexico).■

Infact,artifactsandpotteryfromTeotihuacánhavebeendiscoveredinsitesasfarawayasthe

Mayanlowlands,theGuatemalanhighlands,northernMexico,andtheGulfCoastofMexico.

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otbeencommonatEarth’ssincetheverybeginningoftheplanet’eit

usuallyexistsinametallicstate,itwaspreferentiallyincorporatedinEarth’scoreastheplanetcooled

undinhighconcentrationsinsomemeteorites,inwhichthesolarsystem’s

day,microscopicmeteoritescontinuallybombard

Earth,uringhowmanyofthemeteoritesfalltoEarthovera

givenperiodoftime,scientistscanestimatehowlongitmighthavetakentodeposittheobrved

amountoflrintheboundaryclay.■Thecalculationssuggestthataperiodofaboutonemillionyears

wouldhavebeenrequired.■However,otherreliableevidencesuggeststhatthedepositionofthe

boundaryclaycouldnothavetakenonemillionyears.■Sotheunusuallyhighconcentrationoflrems

torequireaspecialexplanation.■

Conquently,theideathattheIrintheboundaryclaycamefrommicroscopicmeteoritescannotbe

accepted.

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