整理英语

★Haliday—unctions:ideational,interpersonal,textual.

★whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeachstudy?

Phonetics----thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesounds

thatoccurintheworld’slanguages.

Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurina

languageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.

Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsand

therulesbywhichwordsareformed.

Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthentencestructureofalanguage.

Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

dyofhowspeakersofa

languageuntencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.

Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.

Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching

andlearning.

Chapter2Phonology

★threebranchesofphonetics:①Articulatory—describesthewayourspeechorganswork

toproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.②Auditory-–studiesthephysical

propertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlya

theoreticalideal.③Acoustic-–studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,theway

soundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.

★OrgansofSpeech:Pharyngealcavity–咽腔Oralcavity–口腔greatestsourceof

modificationofairstreamfoundhereNasalcavity–鼻腔

★Broadtranscription:Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.(leaf/l/)

★Narrowtranscription:Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthe

diacritics.(dark/l/~)

★PhoneticsandPhonology区别:areconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-the

speechsounds.①Phonetics:itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsudinallhuman

languages;phoneticfeaturestheyposss;howtheycanbeclassified,etc.②Phonology:it

aimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesoundsare

udtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

★rulesinPhonology:①Sequentialrules:Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsina

particularlanguage.②Assimilationrules:Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundto

anotherby’copying’afeatureofaquentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophonessimilar.

③Deletionrule:It’saphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeleted

althoughitsorthographicallyreprented.

★Supragmental超切分特征:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthe

nsupragmentalfeaturesinclude

stress,intonationandtone.(intonation:whenpitch,stressandsoundlentharetiedtothe

ntenceratherthanthewordinisolation.//tone:Tonearepitchvariations,whicharecaudby

asupragmentalfeature.)

Chapter3Morphology

★openclasswords:nouns,verbs,

classwords:conjunctions,prepositions,

berofsuch

wordsissmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded.

Chapter4Syntax

★determineaword’scategory:①tegoriesoftenbearsomerelationship

ningassociatedwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvarious

pertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedby

adjectives.(prettylady,attributetheproperty“pretty”tothelady.)②f

unsasboyanddesktaketheplural

uchasworkandhelptakepasttenaffix-edandprogressiveaffix-ing.③

mple,

thegirlandacard④小结Aword'sdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutits

meaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.

★phra包括:head,specifier,complement.①Thewordroundwhichphraisformedis

termedhead.②Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.

Specifiershavebothspecialmanticandsyntacticroles:Semantically,theyhelpmakemore

tically,theytypicallymakeaphraboundary.③

mentsarethemlves

phrasandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoexistenceisimpliedby

eattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.

★phrastructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthe

arrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraiscalledaphrastructurerule.

★XPrule:Inallphras,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftoftheheadwhile

imilaritiescanbesummarizedasanXPrule,

inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.(XP----->(specifier)X(complement))

★coordinationrule:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthe

enomenonisknownas

ructurearecalledcoordinationstructure.(Fourimportantproperties:

①Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortothe

conjunction.②Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.③

Coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.④Thecategorytypeofthecoordinate

phraisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.)Coordination

Rule:X------>X*ConX)

★deepstructureandsurfacestructure:st,

formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead'ssubcategorizationproperties,iscalled

deepstructure(orD-structure).//Thecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformof

thentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(or

S-structure).

Chapter5Semantics

★Thenamingtheory:(GreekscholarPlato)Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsor

symbols,inotherwords,thewordsudinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjects

theystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.

★Theconceptualistview:Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformand

whatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthe

mediationofconceptsinthemind.

★Contextualism:()peopleshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,u,context—

’sbadonthepresumptionthatonecan

dsofcontext:the

situationalandthelinguisticcontext.{A)thesituationalcontext:Everyutteranceoccursina

particularsituation,themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,thespeakerandthehearer,the

actionstheyareperforming,thevariousobjectsandeventxistentinthesituation.-----The

alcouldnotbefound.B)thelinguisticcontext:co-text,isconcernedwiththeprobability

ofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe

“meaning”oftheword,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticular

utterance.-----blackcoffer&blackhair.}

★Senreferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthe

featuresofthelinguisticform,it’sabstractandde-contextualized.//Referenceiswhata

linguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itisamatterofrelationshipbetweenthe

formandreality.//关系:①Linguisticforms,havingthesamen,mayhavedifferent

referenceindifferentsituations.②Linguisticformswiththesamereferencemaydifferin

n.-----morningstar=eveningstar.③Linguisticformsmayhaven,buthaveno

referenceintherealworld.------dragon,ghost.

★Hyponymy:Itreferstothenrelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusiveword

dwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,

andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.

★XentailsY:entailment:therelationshipbetweentwontenceswherethetruthofoneis

illedthedogentailsthedogisdead.

(X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.)

★componentialanalysis:anapproachtoanalyzethelexicalmeaningintoatofmeaning

mple,boymaybeshownas[+human][+male]

[-adult].manticfeatures:Thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword,whichmaybe

mple,womanhasthemantic

features[+human][-male][+adult].//Advantages:byspecifyingthemanticfeaturesof

certainword,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthewordsarerelatedinmeaning.

★PredicationAnalysis:①Themeaningofantenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsof

allitscomponents,thatis,themeaningofantenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupall

themeaningsofitsconstituentwords.E.g:Thedogbittheman.&Themanbitthedog.

②Therearetwoaspectstontencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandmanticmeaning.

Grammaticality:grammatical(well-formedness);Semanticallymeaningful:lectional

restrictions.(lectionalrestriction:Whetherantenceismanticallymeaningfulis

governedbytherulescalledlectionalrestrictions,aintsonwhatlexicalitemscan

gowithwhatothers.)……(consistofpredicateandargument)

Chapter6pragmatics

★Context(JohnFirth):Thenotionofcontextisntialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,

it’sgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthe

hearer.★Speechacttheory(JohnAustin)

★Searle’sClassificationofSpeechActs:1reprentatives:Statingordescribing,saying

whatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2directives:Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3

commisives:Committingthespeakerhimlftosomefuturecourofaction.4expressives:

Expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5declaration:Bringabout

immediatechangesbysayingsomething.///Conclusion:Alltheactsthatbelongtothesame

categorysharethesamepurpobutdifferintheirstrengthorforce.

★cooperativePrinciple(CP):PropodbyPaulGrice,theprinciplethattheparticipants

mustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateinmakingconversation,otherwi,itwouldbe

impossibletocarryonthetalk.

★Historicallinguistics:abranchoflinguistics,ismainlyconcernedwithboththe

descriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredovertime.

★manticbroadening:whenthemeaningofawordbecomesbroader,itmayincludeallthe

meaningsitudtomean,holiday,whichoriginallymeantholyday,

butitmeansanydaywhichwedon’thavetowork.

★manticnarrowing:

deer(anyanimal—aparticularkindofanimal)

★manticshift:alexicalitemmayundergoashiftinmeaningisthethirdkindofmantic

change.

★sociolinguistics:isthesub-fieldoflinguisticthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageand

society,betweentheusoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheursoflanguage

live.

★Inter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety:A)languageisudnotonlyto

communicatemeaning,butalsoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.B)Ursofthe

samelanguageinanallspeakdifferently,duetotheirsocialbackgrounds.C)Language,

especiallythestructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironments

sonlyonewordinEnglishforsnow,andthereareveralinEskimo.

D)Languageisrelatedtothestructureifthesocietyinwhichitisud,therefore,judgments

concerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesaresocialratherthanlinguistic.

ofpostvocalic[r]inEnglandandinNewYorkcity.

★speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.

★speechvariety:referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechudbyaspeakeroragroup

aldialects,sociolects,registers

★Register:inarestrictedn,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoone’soccupation.

Inabroadern,thetypeoflanguagewhichislectedasappropriatetothetypeof

situationisaregister.{A)Fieldofdiscour----topic:thepurpoandsubjectmatterof

thecommunicativebehavior.----why/what---vocabulary,phonological,grammaticalfeatures

B)Tenorofdiscour----role:participantsandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.

----formality/technicalityofthelanguageweu.C)Modeofdiscour----meansof

communication.-----how(speakingorwriting).}

★degreeofformality:intimate;casual;consultative;formal;frozen

★culture:A）Inabroadn:Culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthe

patternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizes

thelifeofthehumancommunity.B)Inanarrown:Culturemayrefertoalocalor

specificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterpri

cultureorfoodcultureetc.

★Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture:①languageasanintegralpartofhuman

expressandembodies

culturalreality.②reflectsandaffectsaculture’swayofthinkingandhelpsperpetuateand

changethecultureanditsinfluence,whichalsofacilitatesthedevelopmentofthislanguage

atthesametime.③languageisapartofculture.

★Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:Abeliefthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwholly

orpartlybytheirstructureoftheirnativelanguage.------interdependenceoflanguageand

thought….(therearetwointerpretations:ong

versionbelievesthatlanguagepatternsdeterminepeople’k

oneholdsthattheformerinfluencesthelater.)

★Greetingsandtermsofaddress:A)Peopleindifferentcountrieschootheproper

greetingstogreetdifferentpeopletheymeetondifferentoccasions.B)Thetermsofaddress

canbedifferentindifferentcountries.C)Chinepeoplewillalsoextendkinshiptermsand

indicatepeople’sinfluentialstatus.

★culturaloverlap:Thesituationbetweentwosocietiesduetosomesimilaritiesinthe

naturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeing

★culturaldiffusion:Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureB

andbecomepartofcultureB,thusbringingaboutculturaldiffusion.

★linguisticsimperialism:itisakindofkindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthe

promulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworld-wideexpansionofonelanguage.

★languageacquisition:Itreferstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue,

childcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.(thebehaviourist,the

innatist{LAD=LanguageAcquisitionDevice},theinteractionistview{mothere,child

directedspeech,caretakertalk}

★under-extension:Uawordwithlessthanitsusualrangeofdenotation.E.g,babyus

animaltorefertocat,butdeniesthebirdbelongstoananimal.

★over-extension:Extensionofthemeaningofawordbeyonditsusualdomainof

applicationbyyoungchildren.E.g,babyusappleforallfruit.

★AtypicalDevelopment:hearingimpairment,mentalretardation,autism,stuttering,

aphasia,dyslexia,dysgraphia.

★condlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresa

condlanguagesubquenttohisnativelanguage.

★Connectionbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandcondlanguageacquisition:①

Theoretically----Thenewfindingsandadvancesinfistlanguageacquisitionespeciallyin

learningtheoriesandlearningprocessareilluminatinginunderstandingcond

languageacquisition.②Practically------Thetechniquesudtocollectandanalyzedatain

firstlanguageacquisitionalsoprovideinsightsandperspectivesinthestudyofcond

languageacquisition.③condlanguageacquisitionisdifferentfromfirstlanguage

acquisitionandthecondlanguagelearnersgenerallyfailtoattainnative-likecompetence.

★interlanguage:Atypeoflanguageproducedbycondandforeignlanguagelearners,who

areintheprocessoflearningalanguage,andthistypeoflanguageusuallycontainswrong

socalledlearnerlanguage.--itsmainfeatureisfossilization.

★overgeneralization:Theuofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituations,inwhich

theyareunacceptable.E.g:Janesuggestedmetogiveupsmoking(×).

★cross-association:somewordsaresimilarinmeaningaswellasspellingandpronunciation.

icotistoosourtoeatit(×).

★IndividualDifferences:①Languageaptitude②motivation（instrumentalmotivation;

integrativemotivation;resultativemotivation;intrinsicmotivationpleasurefromlearning.）

③learningstrategie(cognitivestrategies;metacognitivestrategies;affect/socialstrategies)

④AgeofAcquisition.⑤Personality

★Neurolinguistics:isthestudyoflanguagedisordersandtherelationshipbetweenthebrain

udesrearchintohowthestructureofthebraininfluenceslanguage

learning,howandinwhichpartsofthebrainlanguageisstored,andhowdamagetothe

brainaffectstheabilitytoulanguage.

★Aphasiareferstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisorderduetothecerebrallesions

caudbyvascularproblems,atumor,anaccidentandsoon.

★psycholinguisticsisthestudyofpsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwith

ernsthereprentationoflanguageinthemind,theplanning,

production,perceptionandcomprehensionofspeech,andlanguageacquisition.

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