beliefs

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GroundlessBeliefs

Infuturewearegoingtofollowthepractice—untilitbecomesahabit—of

ystatementwecomeacross,

weshallask:“Howdoweknowthat?Whatreasonhaveweforbelievingthat?On

what‘ground’isthatstatementbad?”Probablyweshallbeastonishedatthenumber

ofpropositionsmetwithineverydaylifewhichweshallfinditnecessarytoclassas

stuponmeretradition,oronsomebody’sbareasrtion

unsupportedbyeverashadowofproof…

Itmaybeabeliefwhichweoriginallyacceptedasaresultofsimple

“suggestion,”owbecomeoneof

ssomebody-somewhere-sometimetoldusa

certainthing,andquiteuncritically,sitwasway

backinourearlychildhood—beforewehadevendevelopedthepowerofquestioning

ourstrongestconvictionswereestablished

then;andnow,inadultlife,

emtous“obviously”true.

ButifthestaunchestRomanCatholicandthestaunchestPresbyterianhadbeen

exchangedwheninfants,andiftheyhadbeenbroughtupwithhomeandallother

influencesreverd,

consistentwithallourknowledgeofpsychologytoconcludethateachwouldhave

grownupholdingexactlytheoppositebeliefstothoheholdsnow…andeachwould

thenhavefeltassureofthetruthofhisopinionashenowfeels—ofthetruthofthe

ethingistrue,ofcour,ofmanybeliefsotherthanthoof

dgrownupinacommunitywherepolygamyor

head-hunting,orinfanticide,orgladiatorialfighting,ordueling,wasregardedasthe

normalandnaturalthing—thenweshouldhavegrownuptoregarditas“obviously”

glishbabyhadbeenadoptedand

broughtupinaGermanhome,andhadgrownupwithnoknowledgethathisparents

wereEnglish,allthentimentsandbeliefsofthatpersonwouldbe“German”andnot

“English.”Manyofourbeliefs—manyofourmostdeeply-rootedandfundamental

convictions—areheldsimplyasaresultofthefactthatwehappentohavebeen

“broughtup”tothem.

Ofcourwedonotcea,whenweceatobechildren,toadoptnewbeliefson

inuedoingit,moreorlessunconsciouslyallourlives;hence,

totakeonlythemoststrikingexamples,theenormousinfluenceofnewspapersandthe

whatpassassuchisnot,strictly,

emere“parroting”ofideaspickedupbychanceandadoptedas

ople,mostofthetime,e

leavechildhood,wetendtoacceptonlysuchnewideasasfitinwiththeideaswe

alreadyhold;andallconflictingideasemtous“obviously”absurd.

Propositionsthatareacceptedsimplybecau“everybodysaysso,”mustbe

mamaynotbethatofanyparticular

individual:itmaybeadogmaticstatementwhichhasbeenpasdfromonepersonto

another,fromgenerationtogeneration,perhapsforhundreds—perhapsfor

thousands—

thatca,

shouldfullyfacethefactthatbeliefswhicharemerelyinheritedfromthepastmust

act

thatabeliefis“old”isnoargumentinitsfavour.

Weneedespeciallytobeonourguardwhenwecomeacrosspropositionswhich

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emtobe“obviously”true.

Whenwefindourlventertaininganopinionaboutwhichthereisafeeling

thateventoenquireintoitwouldbeabsurd,unnecessary,undesirable,orwicked—we

mayknowthatthatopinionisanon-rationalone.

Whenwearetemptedtosaythatanygeneraltruthisso“obvious”thatitwould

beabsurdeventoquestionit,weshouldrememberthatthewholehistoryofthe

developmentofhumanthoughthasbeenfullofcasofsuch“obvioustruths”breaking

tance,for

agesnothingcouldhaveemedmoreobvious,moreutterlybeyondquestionthatthe

propositionthatslaverywasnatural,reasonable,necessary,ndsof

menwere“obviously”“slavesbynature.”Todoubtitwasimpossible.

Againformorethantwothousandyears,itwas“impossibletoconceive”the

clewas“obviously”theperfect

figure;andsoitwas“natural”and“inevitable”tosuppothattheplanetsmovedin

-longstruggleofthegreatestintellectsintheworldtoshakeoffthat

assumptionisoneofthemarvelsofhistory.

Itwasformerly“obvious”thattheheart—andnotthebrain—wastheorganof

peopletodayitemqually“obvious”thatwethinkwithour

dernpersonsfinditverydifficulttocreditthefactthatmencaneven

—theydid.

Thattheearthmustbeflat,formerlyemedsoobviousandlf-evidentthatthe

verysuggestionofanyotherpossibilitywouldhavebeen—andwas—regardedasa

joke.

Itwasfortwothousandyears“takenforgranted”as“obvious”thataheavy

medordogmaticpropositionwhichhad

beenuniversallyacceptedas“obvious;”andwhich,whenchallenged,wassupported

alileoactuallydemonstratedthecontrary,

nothingcouldhaveemedmorebeyondpossibilityordoubt.

Propositionswhichareacceptedblindly,withoutquestiononthegroundsof

mereassumptionordogma,ssinhuman

thoughtemstoconsistmainlyingettingridofsuchideas.

psychologyleavesusno

tandclingtosomebeliefsbecau—orpartly

becau—it“pays”,asarule,thepersonconcernedisaboutthelast

,hewouldprobably

behighlyindignantiftoldofwhatanyonefamiliarwithmodernpsychologycan

dbequitewrongtoattributeallopinions—evenpolitical

opinions—ouldbeequallywrongtodenythatthisisonepotent

factor.

“Self-interest”istobeunderstoodfirstintheordinaryn,asreferringtoa

man’ayextendtheterm

tocoveralsohisinterestinsocialposition;popularitywithhisfellows;therespectand

rshisinterestinhis

owncareer,inwhateverprestigeheenjoysasoneoftheleaders—oratleastasavalued

supporter—ofsomemovementorinstitution,somereligiousbody,someotherkindof

smanyamanwhoisunconsciouslycompelledtoclingtoa

beliefbecauheisa“somebody”insomecircle—andifheweretoabandonthat

belief,hewouldfindhimlfnobodyatall.

Puttingitbroadly,weshouldalwayssuspectanyofouropinionswhenwe

recognizethatourhappinessdepends,directlyorindirectly,uponourcontinuingto

holdthem—whenwemightloanything,materialorotherwi,bychangingour

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opinion.

Somewhatsimilaristheacceptanceofanopinionthroughthedesire—probably

notrecognizedbythepersonconcerned—tojustifyhisownnature,hisownposition,or

ardcansoeasilyadoptaphilosophywhichemstojustify

cowardice—though,ofcour,“cowardice”isnotthenamehegivesit!Thelazyand

bunglingpersoncanadoptatofopinionswhichprovetohissatisfactionthat“the

grapesaresour”—the“grapes”beingtherewardsthatmoreenergeticandcompetent

mencanwin.

thoughtisassociatedwithmemories—pleasantorunpleasantasthecamaybe—of

undthatmanyamanwhoin

childhoodwashostiletohisfather,inafterlifeisalwaysprejudicedagainstwhatever

verlyinthecaofonewhohaspleasant

recollectionsofhisfather,hismother,ateacherperhaps,orsomeotherpersonwho

playedabigpartinhiarlylife.

Inadultlife,aswehaveoftenobrved,abitterquarrelmaychangeaman’s

nismtoamanusuallyproducessomeantagonismtohis

opinions;andthebitternessfeltagainstthemanusuallyspreadstotheideaforwhich

ensatisfactionwefindinbelittlingtheopinions,orattackingthe

opinions,ofsomebodyofwhomwearejealous,orofsomebodyagainstwhomwebear

agrudge!But,ontheotherhand,itiquallytruethatfriendlyfeelingstoamanhave

aneffectindisposingustofeelfriendlytohisviews.

onexample:howlargelyouropinionsonthemeritsofcertainauthors,orpoets,or

compors,aredictatedmerelybyfashion!Buttheeffectoffashionisverymuchwider

thanthat:wetraceitalmosteverywhere,very

others,

perhaps;butothersofourownt.

Butwedonot,asarule,continueallourliveschangingourntimentsand

amanholdshisopinionstoday—becautheyhappenedtobeinfashionten,twenty,

thirty,forty,orfiftyyearsago.

Onceanopinionisaccepted,whateverbethecauofitsacceptance,ithasa

imewethinkalongaparticularthought-pattern,

itelegitimatetospeakof

“habits”“brainpath”becomessowellworn;thepatternof

brain-centresbecomessowellconnectedupbycontinualu,thatthenevercurrent

findsarouteofpracticallynoresistance,andsoitalwaystakesalmostexactlythesame

cour.

nowtoothe

personwhohascertainstockargumentsandopinionswhichheexpress,almostinthe

samewords,wheneverhereceivesthe“cue.”Weallknowmenandwomenwho

montothe“record”aboutthegoodolddays;or

aboutprohibition;oraboutthewickedcapitalist;oraboutthelazyandimprovident

workers;oraboutthecountrygoingtothedogs;oraboutthemoderngirl;orsomelong,

tediousanecdoteaboutwhatIsaidtohim,andwhathesaidtome,andIsaid…andhe

said…andthenItoldhimstraight…!Allwehavetodoistostarthimoff—and

nothingonearthcanstophim—untilthe“record”hasrunout!

heyhavebeen

heldacertainlengthoftime,theybecome,asitwere,sostampedinbycontinualu

eareyoung,weare

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continuallytakinginnewideas,alteringourthought-patterns,“makingupourminds”

owolder,webecomelessandlessabletoacceptanynewideawhich

become,inJames’sterm,Old

ogeymayhave

becomesuchatventeen—orventy.“Iamalmostafraidtosayso(saysJames),butI

believethatinthemajorityofhumanbeingsOldFogeyismbeginsatabouttheageof

twenty-five.”

Yetwhenfullallowancehasbeenmadeforallthenon-rationalfactorsinthe

determinationofopinion,thereremains—notinallminds,notinmostminds,butin

some—adesiretodiscoverthefacts:tothinkthingsoutinaclearandrationalway;to

getatthetruthatallcosts,whateveritmayturnouttobe!Forsuchmindsthis…is

written.