commonwealth

1

英美概况

AnIntroductiontoBritainandAmerica

使用教材：

来安方.英美概况.河南人民出版社，2002.

学时分配

序号课程内容学时数学时合计

1第一章人文地理概况6

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2第二章历史8

3第三章政治制度和政府构成8

4第四章补充材料2

5第五章美国社会全景6

6第六章历史8

7第七章政府机构和社会生活8

8第八章补充材料2

任课教师：施海霞任课班级：英语051

2

TeachingObjectives:Thiscourismainlytomakeknowntothestudentsthe

Britishpolitics,cultureaswellassocietyatlarge,andits

positionintheworldasfarasitslonghistoryisconcerned.

(Itmightbedifficultforthestudentstounderstandthe

Britishpoliticalsystem,itspeopleanditscultural

,some

emphasisshouldbelaidonitsreligiousbackground.)

TimeAllocation:4periods

FocalPoints:TheCountryoftoday,UnderstandingofDifferentNames

lIntroduction

GreatBritain,thedominantindustrialandmaritimepowerofthe19thcentury,

playedaleadingroleindevelopingparliamentarydemocracyandinadvancing

enith(极盛时期),theBritishEmpirestretchedover

one-fourthoftheearth'sthalfofthe20thcenturysawtheUK's

ondhalfwitnesdthe

dismantling(瓦解)oftheEmpireandtheUKrebuildingitlfintoamodernand

prosperousEuropeannation.

AsoneoffivepermanentmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncil(China,France,

RussianFederation,UnitedKingdomandUnitedStates),afoundingmemberof

NATO(NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization),andoftheCommonwealth,theUK

pursuesaglobalapproachtoforeignpolicy;itcurrentlyisweighingthedegreeofits

roftheEU(EuropeanUnion),itcho

toremainoutsidetheEconomicandMonetaryUnionforthetimebeing.

ttishParliament,

theNationalAsmblyforWales,andtheNorthernIrelandAsmblywere

establishedin1999,butthelatterissuspendedduetobickering(argue)overthepeace

process.

GovernmentUnitedKingdom

Officialname:TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland.

Formofgovernment:Constitutionalmonarchy

Legislature:Bicamerallegislaturewithtwolegislativehous

fLords[675members(consistingofapproximately

500lifepeers,92hereditarypeersand26clergy);

3

fCommons(646atssince2005elections;

membersareelectedbypopularvotetorvefive-year

termsunlesstheHouisdissolvedearlier)

Note:1)Elections:HouofLords-noelections;

HouofCommons-lastheld5May2005(nexttobeheld

byMay2010)

2)Electionresults:HouofCommons-percentofvotebyparty-Labor

35.2%,Conrvative32.3%,LiberalDemocrats22%,other10.5%;ats

byparty-Labor356,Conrvative197,LiberalDemocrat62,other31

Capital:London,England.

Nationalholiday:theUKdoesnotcelebrateoneparticularnationalholiday

Constitution:unwritten;partlystatutes,partlycommonlawandpractice

Chiefofstate:Sovereign(君主).

PrentQueen:ElizabethII(sinceFebruary1952);

Headofgovernment:PrimeMinister.

PrentPrimeMinister:Anthony(Tony)Blair(since2May1997)(LaborParty)

Cabinet:CabinetofMinistersappointedbytheprimeminister;

NationalAnthem:GodSavetheKing(Queen)

GodSavetheQueen

GodsaveourgraciousQueen,

LongliveournobleQueen,

GodsavetheQueen!

Sendhervictorious,

Happyandglorious,

Longtoreignoverus,

GodsavetheQueen!

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OlordGodari,

Scatterourenemies,

Andmakethemfall!

Confoundtheirknavishtricks,

Confutheirpolitics,

Onyouourhopeswefix,

GodsavetheQueen!

Notinthislandalone,

ButbeGod'smerciesknown,

Fromshoretoshore!

Lordmakethenationse,

Thatmenshouldbrothersbe,

Andformonefamily,

Thewideworldov'er

Fromeverylatentfoe,

Fromtheassasinsblow,

GodsavetheQueen!

O'erherthinearmextend,

ForBritain'ssakedefend,

Ourmother,prince,andfriend,

GodsavetheQueen!

Thychoicestgiftsinstore,

Onherbepleadtopour,

Longmayshereign!

Mayshedefendourlaws,

Andevergiveuscau,

Tosingwithheartandvoice,

GodsavetheQueen!

---Whatis“Commonwealth”?

CommonwealthofNations,worldwideassociationofnationsandtheir

dependencies,whomembersshareacommoncommitmenttopromotinghuman

rights,democracy,bersaccepttheBritish

one,Mozambique,were

onceassociatedinsomeconstitutionalwaywitheithertheformerBritishEmpireor

ociationwasformerlyknownastheBritish

CommonwealthofNations,buttodayisreferredtosimplyastheCommonwealth.

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About1.7billionpeopleliveinthe54independentnationsandthemorethan20

dependentnationscanbe

consideredfullmembers;theyareallfullysovereignandinnowaysubordinateto

enciesofCommonwealthnationsarealsoincludedinthe

Commonwealth,althoughnotasfullmembers,andcanparticipateinmany

wealthmemberssharemanycustomsand

veparliamentary

systemsofgovernmentontheBritishmodel,andtheirjudicialandeducational

hisanofficiallanguageof

1977thecondMondayinMarchhas

beencelebratedasCommonwealthDay;onthatdaytheBritishmonarch,asthehead

oftheCommonwealth,prentsanannualmessagetoallmembercountries.

AlmostallmembersoftheCommonwealthwereonceruledbyBritainaspartof

them,suchasAustraliaandCanada,werelargelyttled

,suchasIndiaandNigeria,wereareaswhereBritish

administratorsgovernedalargenon-Britishpopulation.

nfunction

istoencouragecommunicationandcooperationamongitsdivermembers,with

1965theCommonwealthSecretariatwas

establishedinLondontorveasaclearinghoufortheexchangeofinformation.

TheSecretariat(秘书处)isheadedbytheCommonwealthcretarygeneralandis

resp

cretarygeneralilectedbytheCommonwealthheadsofgovernmentfromamong

monwealthFoundation

providesfinancialandothersupporttoprofessionalassociationsandnon-government

organizations,enablingthegroupstotraveltootherCommonwealthcountriesto

worktogether.

TheheadsofCommonwealthgovernmentsmeettodiscusscommonproblems

everytwoyearsatCommonwealthHeadsofGovernmentMeetings(CHOGM).In

addition,ministersandexpertsineducation,health,finance,science,law,women’s

issues,youthaffairs,andvarioustechnicalfieldsmeetfrequentlytoconsultandacton

importantissues.

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VolumeITheGreatBritain

ChapterOneLandandPeople

Section1:TheBritishIslesandGreatBritain

istoryofBritishpeopleandlanguage

ater

washedoffbyawaterandbecameanisland.

nehengeleftbytheIberiansisthepossibleoriginofEnglishhistory.

TheIberians

werethefirstinvaderswhoweredark-haired“Mediterranean”race.(3,500

yearsagowithoutanywrittenrecord)

ts,alsocalledtheBritonswhoweresaidtohavecomefromeasternand

centralEurope(France,BelgiumandSouthernGermany),wereregardedas

efathersoftheCeltsimmigratedinto

Britaininabout7thcenturyB.C.

ansledbyJuliusCaesarwentacrosstheChannelandinvadedBritain

ansconqueredtheCeltsinEnglandinthefirst

ancivilizationwas

broughttoBritain:language,town,temples,theatresandfinebuildings.

ictribesfromNorthEurope:Angles,Saxons,Jutesinvadedit410A.D.

TheAnglesgavetheirnametoEngland(Angle’sland)andtheEnglish

people.

dredyearslater,theDanesfromtheNorth–EastofEuropefought

againstoneoftheearliestandgreatestofEnglishkings,Alfred,about900

1016theDanishleaderwasputonthethroneandbegantorule

theConfessor,theDanishkingwasapiousChristianbuilt

llknownforits

Poet’sCorner,

coronationceremonieversincetheNormanConquesthavebeenheldinthe

Abbey.

s(“North-men”)were

illiam(“WilliamtheConqueror”,

“DukeWilliamofNormandy”),theNormansfromFranceconqueredEngland

in1066.

OriginsoftheBritishPeople:tableofinvasions

Inchronologicalorder

InvadersContribution

Iberians?

Celts(Gaels,Britons)ScottishandIrishraceandculture,Welshrace

andculture

RomansLatinalphabetandcivilization

Germanictribes

(Angles,Saxons,Jutes)Englishraceandlanguage

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Danessomepeculiaritiesofdialectinnorthandeast

England

Normans(French-Speaking)

administrativeprogress.

Englishcivilizationpermanentlylinkedto

tion

ofaristocracy.

Language:

Indo-Europeanlanguage(byNeolithicpeoplewanderinginAsiaandEurope)

↓

NorthEurope→Germaniclanguage(manytribes)&Otherlanguages

↓

Anglo-Saxon:OldEnglish(5th---12thc.)&brothersinNorthEurope:German

language

↓

↓1066NormanConquest

↓

MiddleEnglish(12th---15thc.)

↓printingintroducedtoEngland(SamuelJohnson,1st

dictionary)

↓expansionoftheEnglishEmpire

↓Renaissance

ModernEnglish

eandweather:

sweatherbecomeageneraltopicfordailyconversation?

ult,Englishpeople

haveevolvedthehabitofdiscussingtheweatherwheneverthereisthepossibility.

ThetemperatureinBritainis“strange”becauitis“incompatible”withthe

latitude:inwinterthetemperatureis“toohigh”(3-10),whileinsummeritis“too

low”(25-32).

glishpeoplesay,“Othercountrieshaveaclimate;inEnglandwe

haveweather.”

Climate:average,certainarealongperiodweathercondition

Weather:daytodayparticulararea

ThecharacteristicsofEnglishweather:

able:Onecanexperience4asonsinthecourofasingleday.

Awarmspringmorning→about1hourlater:blackclouds→rain,

drizzleorpouringdown→atmiddy:temperaturedown,wintrycold→inthe

lateafternoon:theskywillclear,andsunshines→summerbeforedarkness

falls

enitisfine,theywillbringan

umbrellawiththem.

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ntrain:almosthalfofthedaysarerainydays,muchofwhich

comesdownindrizzle.

kingdeferencebetweenasons.

nLondon:smogcaudbythepollutionofindustries,coaludfor

visibilityinLondonisnotasbadasitwasbefore.

festivalisoneofthemajorEnglishannualfestivalswithalong

historyissomewhatliketheChinefestivalofPureBrightnesswhenChine

people“walkonthegreengrass“towelcomethereturnofspring.

3．MapofEngland:

lnameofthecountry&someofthecommonlyudones.

TheUnitedKingdomofGreatBritainandNorthernIreland

U.K./theUnitedKingdom

GreatBritain/Britain(thebiggestislandamongtheBritishIsles,whichincludes

theNorthernIrelandandtheRepublicofIreland),whichdoesnotincludethe

ceitcoversthemostareaofthecountry,itisthe

nameindicatingthewholecountry.

England(TheimportanceofEnglandissogreatthatitlfcanmeanthewhole

country)

positionofthewholecountry:

alittlemorethan244,700withapopulation

ofsome57.4million(1990)

Areapopulationterrain

England85%plain

GreatBritainScotland10%

highland/lowland/mountainchain

Wales5%mountain

NorthernIrelandhighland

Mountainsandhighlands:sparlypopulated

Lowlandandplain:denlypopulated

Physiographicfeatures:theHighlandZoneofthenorthandwestandtheLowland

Zoneofthesouthandsoutheast.

portantplacestoremember:

ThePennies,alsoknownasthe“BackboneofEngland”,arekindof“upland”

inthenorthernpartofEngland.

thefamousEnglishpoets,suchasWilliamWordsworth,SamuelColeridgeand

RobertSoutheygottheirinspirationfromandtheirpoemssanghighpraiofthe

recalledtheLakePoetsinthehistoryofEnglish

literature.

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runsthroughtheMidlandofEngland,whichisthemostimportantplaininBritain.

andtheUniversitytown,Oxford,

aresituatedontheriver.

ap:

alandborderwith:theRepublicofIreland

TothenorthofU.K.:IcelandandNorway

AcrosstheNorthSea:Holland,Germany,DenmarkandNorway

TothesoutheastandacrosstheEnglishChannel:France

TothesouthacrosstheAtlanticOceanandtheBayofBiscay:Spainand

Portugal

OnthewestcorrespondingsideoftheAtlanticOcean:America&Canada

nglishqualifiedasaninternationallanguage?

ThequalityoftheEnglishlanguagewasgreatlyimprovedbyextensiveborrowing,

ansionof

theBritishEmpirehelpedtospreadEnglishintomanycountriesandplacesallover

okenasthenativelanguageintheUS,Britain,Ireland,Australia,

NewZealand,Canada,soudasthecond

languageforcertainofficialsaswellassocial,commercialandeducationalactivities

inIndia,Pakistan,Nigeria,Kenya,so

histheprimarymedium

alltherearchpapersarepublishedin

binedGNPpftheEnglish-speaking

countriesandplacestakesupmorethanhalfoftheworld’stotal.

Section2:PeopleandtheState

llknownfor?

stcountrytoestablishtheParliamentwhichfinallyledtoparty

politics

stcountrytowitnessthebourgeoisrevolutionwhichresultedinthe

foundingofademocracywithaconstitutionalmonarchy

stcountrytostarttheIndustrialRevolutionwhichcontributedto

theestablishmentofBritishEmpire“onwhichthesunnevert”

tishgovernmentsystem,knownastheWestminsterSystem,

providedthebasicframeworkformanyotherwesterndemocracies

includingtheUStomodelon.

lishlanguageisoneofthemostimportantlanguagesintheworld.

olitics:

2majorparties:rvatives←theToryParty

or←WhigParty(Liberal),FabianSociety,Trade

Unions

&someminorparties…

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rvatives,also

calledTories,aresupportedbymostlandownersandbusinessmen(middle

classandalltheupper-middleclass---professionalandmanagerialpeople),

hohavesomethingto“conrve”(keepfromchange,lossor

destruction).Theytendtoupholdtheexistingauthority.

DoctrinesheldbytheConrvative:

ein“privateenterpri”

nsttoomuchgovernmentcontrolofindustry

illingnesstoacceptcontrolsandchangeswhenitisinevitable

tyoftheLeftistheLaborParty,

formedwiththestrongsupportofthetradeunionssoastogivethe

workerspoliticalpower.(Workingclass,middleandlower-middleclass)

Theircentralbelieves:

inessmancannotbetrustedtorvethebestinterestsofthe

community.

ervisionofindustry(especiallybigenterpris)bythegovernment

competenationalization,wnershipofindustry.

ism:toevenoutthedistributionofwealthsothateveryonehasa

fairshare.

Iftheeconomicsituationwererosy,theLaborPartywouldhavelesschanceto

conomicsituationisgloomyandmanypeoplewantchangesasaway

out,theLaborPartywouldstandagoodchanceofwinningtheelection.

son

choostosupportaParty’sprograminthegeneralelection,heis

automaticallyconsideredasamemberoftheParty.

3．BasicconceptandfunctionoftheBritishGovernment:

lGovernment:

h(kingorqueen)---headofthestate,symbolofthenationalunity

ment(law-makingbody)---(approvedbythequeen)theHouof

Commons&theHouofLords

inet(andvariousdepartments)---theexecutivebranch,called“Her

Majesty’sGovernment”or“thegovernment”,responsibletothe

Parliament,appointedbytheQueen,headedbythePrimeminister→

ministers(headofeachdepartment)→civilrvants

ActandbillspasdbytheParliamentmustgetthequeen’sapprovalbefore

goingintoeffect,therighttoveto…

ThereisnoknowingwhatwillhappeniftheQueendoesnotagreewiththe

government,butfortunatelyshehasgivenherconnttoallgovernment

decisions.

overnment:

CentralGovernment→countygovernment→districtgovernment

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gestlocaladministrativeareasarecalledcounties(oncecalled

“shires”)ire,Lancashire,Wiltshire.

ntyissubdividedintoanumberofdistricts

havebecomedistrictsofthecounty,yofManchester

nowisoneofthedistrictsoftheCountyofGreaterManchester.

d.“borough”mesacitymayincludea

numberofboroughsbecauthecityisverylargeorthecitykeeps

expandinginsize.

Thelocalgovernmentiscalledthe“council”,headedbyaMayororLord

Mayor.

tution:

tishconstitutionhavolvedand

bodiedina

numberofparatelaws:

Parliament:

law:ion/conventionsoftheAnglo-Saxon

tsindealingwithspecificcasbytheEnglish

lawcourts(bythejury)

law:principlesofjusticeoutsidecommonlaworstatutelaw,udto

correctlawswhenthewouldapplyunfairlyin

specialcircumstances

anCommunitylegislation

andJustice:

lishlawcourtsaredividedinto3tiers,whichmakeuptheBritishjudicial

branch.

rate’sCourts:elowestcourt

nlytrypeopleforminor,

notveryriousoffences:ntencesofnotmorethan6monthsorfineofnotmore

soknownas“CourtsofSummaryjurisdiction”or“Petty

Sessions”(courtsheldbymagistratestohearcertainoffenceswithoutajury).The

judgesofmagistrate’scourts,“Magistrates”or“JusticesofthePeace”(J.P),are

alwaysordinarycitizens(well-known)andhaveverylittletraininginlawand

receivenosalary.

tCourts:

aredealtbybarrister/lawyers&circuitjudges.

urts:Casdealtbybarristers/lawyers&highcourtjudges

fessionoflawyers:

tor:juniorlawyer---Tobeasolicitoronecanonlyrveatmagistrate’s

courts:workapprenticeinfirmofasolicitor→passtheexaminationof

thelawsociety

ter:niorlawyer---Tobeabarristeroneshould:

Beamemberofoneofthe4InnsofCourt→passtheBarExam→keep

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studyveralyearsintheInn.(earnverylittlemoney/lifeisdifficult)

Ifabarristerissuccessfulenough,hewillbeappointedcircuitcourtjudgeor

highcourtjudge.

h&Americanlegalprincipal:“Noprisonwithouttrial”s

tobepunishedbylawwithoutajusttrialbyhisfellowcitizens---thejurors,also

knownasjurymenorswornmen,HenryII

(12thcentury),sthe

bodyofpersons(inUSandGB12)whosweartogiveadecision(verdict)on

easajurorinajuryisacitizen

(localresident)’sobligation,yreprentsthepeople,anditis

thejury,notthejudge,whichdecideswhetheranaccudpersonisguiltyornot.

Whatisknownas“cross-examination?”

Afterthejurytakesitsplaceinthe“jurybox”,

procutingbarrister,orcounl,willquestionthewitnesssothatastoryofthe

endant’slawyer

knownas“cross-examination”.

forces:

“Doyouwishtosayanything?Youarenotobligedtosayanythingunlessyou

teveryousaywillbetakendowninwritingandmaybe

giveninevidence.”(routinewordsbeforedetaininganyone)

WhyisanEnglishpolicemancalled“bobby”or“peeler”?

Thearenicknamesfor“RobertPeel”.TheEnglishpoliceforceissaidto

havebeenfoundedbySirRobertPeel,PrimeMinisterofWilliamIV.

Englandiswellknownforitstraditionthatpolicemendonotcarryfirearms

(onlyonspecialoccasions).ThisformsasharpcontrastbetweenEnglandand

Americawherepolicemanareneverondutywithoutfirearms.

Thefamous“ScotlandYard”istheCriminalInvestigationDepartmentCID

ofLondonpoliceandassuchfrequentlyappearsinEnglishdetectivestories.

on(HowtheBritishworship)

stChristianchurchinEnglandwasbuiltat

Canterbury.(WhobroughtChristianitytoEngland?)TheUSconstitutiondoesnot

teandthechurchare

landhasitsstatechurch,whichisknownastheChurch

ofEngland(theAnglicanChurch).Itisdividedinto2provinces,YorkandCanterbury.

TheArchbishopofCanterburyisthePrimateofallEngland,espiritual

vincesaresubdividedinto42dioces,

whichareadministeredbybishopscalledbypeople“MyLord”.Hisresidenceis

called“Palace”.Eachdiocehasacentralchurchknownas“cathedral”.Adioceis

subdividedintoparishesadministeredbyapriest,alsocalled“rector”,“vicar”or

“father”.Avicarlivesinavicarageandearnasmuchasanaverageworker.

TheChurchofEnglanddeniessomeviewpointsheldbytheRomanCatholic

ChurchandauthorityofthePopeandregardstheEnglishQueenorKingasitstop

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rchofEnglandisProtestantinnatureanditwasfoundedduringthe

ndfollowsthePresbyterian

system.

Protestant:(member)ofanyoftheChristianbodiesthatparatedfromtheChurch

ofRomeatthetimeoftheoftheReformation(16thcentury)ortheirlaterbranches.

PresbyterianChurch:onegovernedbyelders,allofequalrank(Churchof

Scotland)

FreeChurches:MethodistChurch;TheSalvationArmy;Baptists;TheUnited

ReformedChurch;ReligiousSocietyofFriends

teristicsoftheEnglishpeople:

Onecommonreason:becauofthelonghistoryandinsularposition---island

countryparatedfromalltheothers.

A.“CoatsoffforBritain”isapopularsayinginBritainespeciallyinwarsagainst

foreigners.

Thatshowstheirnationalconsciousnessandpatriotism.

vatism:examplestoshowthat:refutochange,clingtosomething

traditional,nobletitlestodistinguishedpersons,nodecimalsystemincurrency

until1971,Monarchy,fireplaceinsteadofelectricityorgas,protestagainstthe

closingofoldfactoriesandnuclearpowerstation.

lishpeopleareknownas“menofaction”ratherthan

“words”.Theytendtoremainsilentandavoidshowingtheirfeelingsand

cas,theyprefertoreadnewspapersratherthanchitchats

(gossip)tsastabooinsmalltalks:employment,family,

marriage,income,ageandreligiousbelief(privateaffairs)…

isonsocialdeference,obedienceandgoodmanners:Theyaretaughtto

bedeferentialandobedienttothowhoaresuperiorinwealth,statusorpower

bystricthomeandschooldiscipline.

Badmanner:goingtootherpeople’shouswithoutbeinginvited;staringat

others

Goodmanner:properwords,rightaccentandagentlevoice;infriendlytalks

with“thankyouverymuch.”Insteadof“manythanks”;toansweratraveler’s

questionfriendly---todosomethingthathelpstoshowone’sfinebreeding.

tionGap:thechangeinvalueconcept(Whatcausthatandwhatisthe

resultofthat)

Thevalueconceptisboundtochangeintheprocessofthedevelopmentofthe

1960s,thetraditionalideasweregreatlychallengedbythemusicgroup,

Beatleswhoexpresssomelessriousfeelingofcommonpeoplebytheintroduction

ofAmericanrockandrollintheirownwayintoEngland.

ThecharacteristicsoftheBeatles:4Liverpoolboys

heirwordsandmusic

raudience’sparticipation

14

sfeelingsfreely

TheinfluenceoftheBeatles:

ormarriage,declineofbirthrate,legalabortion,increaofdivorceand

cohabitation---toenjoyone’sownlifeinspiteoftherestrictionofthe

conventions

ightformanandwoman

eopledon’twanttofollowthewaytheirparentsaskthemtodo,thus

aristhegenerationgap---Youngpeopledemanda“permissive”societyfor

individualismandpersonality,sothereisageneraldeclineofparental

authority.

Section3NationalEconomies

Britain’conomicstrengthliesinitscomprehensiveindustrialsystem,whichis

badonalargenumberofskilledworkers,scientificmanagementandadvanced

technologyasthefirstcountrytostarttheIndustrialRevolutioninthe18thcentury.

WiththeexpansionoftheBritishEmpire,UKwascalled“theworkshopoftheworld

(WorldPlant)”in1870’uethatBritain’sinfluenceontheBritish

CommonwealthandworldaffairshasbeendecliningsincetheFirstWorldWar;

neverthelessitisstilloneofthevenmajorindustrializedcountriesofthewestern

world(nowcalledG8,“Groupsof8countries”,afterRussiajoinedit).

n’sformsofeconomicorganizationandpatternsofownershiparevaried:

Company:abusinessownedbyanumberofinvestors(privateor

nationalized/state-owned)

Corporation:agroupofpersonsauthorizedbylawtoactasanindividualfor

businesspurpo(similartocompany)

Incorporation:registeringanenterpriwithanofficialregistrarofcompanies.

Ltd.(LimitedLiability):eachcompanyisalegalentitydistinctfromits

olders’liabilityislimitedtotheirownshares.

Ownersofunincorporatedbusinessarepersonallyliableforany

ymeansthesameasAmerican

eallpubliccompanies(PLC).

AccordingtotheBritishlaw,unincorporatedbusinessownedbyprivate

individualsarenotallowedtollsharesatthestockmarketwhilea

PLCcan.

Britishstate-ownedenterprisaremainlyconcernedwithpublictransportation,

watersupply,andproductionofcoal,steel,electricityandoil.

lture:

industrialized

country,butitsagricultureremainsimportant,especiallyforitsanimalhusbandry.

Mixedfarmingofbothanimalsandcrops,thoughrelativelylesfficientthanthe

highlyspecializedfarming(likethelarge-scaledspecializationinUSA),canhelpto

makethefarmer’sworklessasonal.

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ndlightindustry:

ndustries:badonbeinglf-sufficientincoalandoil

coal-miningindustry:graduallybecominga“sick”industrywiththeoutputof

dtocontributegreatlytoBritish

IndustrialRevolutionandbuiltthesolidbasicfor

Britishindustry.

Middle-Eastoilproductionindustry:oilfieldfoundintheNorthSea“British

Petroleum”

Manufacturingindustry:themostimportantpartofBritishindustry

dsteelindustry:Attheendoflastcentury,BSC(BritishSteel

Corporation)transferredaststotheprivatector,“Corus”,whichis

keteconomyprotects

privateownershipandfreeenterpriinordertofightagainst

monopolies.

eindustry:car&agriculturaltractors“Rolls-Royce”

ustry:computers:microprocessors(CPU,modemfornotebooks)

biotechnology(chemicalindustry):medicine&

cosmetics“Imperial

ChemicalIndustries

PLC”

aeroindustry:plane&equipment“BritishAerospace”

ndustry:

textileindustries:Britainoncehadtheworld’slargesttextileindustryand

possdmorethanhalfofthetotalspindlesofthewhole

alled“anationofsheepfarmersandcloth

makers”beforetheindustrialrevolution.(12thc.---19thc.)

Therefore,clothierbecameimportantpersonsinpubliclife

andmaincharacterinEnglishliterature.

ortationandtelecommunication:

transportation:

aports:foritsmerchantmarine

railroads:oneofthedenstandmostheavilyudintheworldThe1st

railwayintheworld,“StocktonandDarlingtonRailway”,wasbuilt

roundrailway(tube)isaconvenientpublic

transportation.

Highway&expressway:bus,privatecarsandtrucksforfreighttraffic

Airport:120commercialairportsareoperatedbythestate-owned“British

Airways”(BA),whichissaidtohavethemostairlinesintheworld.

ThebusiestairportistheHeathrowAirportinLondon.

Underatunnel:TheChannelTunnelwasbuiltin1994toconnectBritain

andFrancedirectly.

telecommunication:“BritishTelecom”

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postalrvices:

1839,telegramwasudinUK.

Telephones:999---theemergencydialingrviceisfreeofcharge

Internet:thefirst“video-on-demand”systeminEurope----themulti-medium

wayoftelecommunication

e&Trade:

gcoastlinewithmanyfineharborsprovides

isregardedasafinancialcenterof

ntradepartners

ofUKareEU,otherwesternEuropeancounties,NorthAmericancountriesand

otherdevelopedcountries.

FamousbanksinUK:

BankofEngland---thecentralorstatebank

Barclays

Midland

Lloyds

RoyalBankofScotland

cialandrviceindustry:knownasthetertiaryindustry,includes

management,design,rearch&development,computing,marketingand

realotofsuperstoresandhypermarkets,amongwhichthe

“BluewaterShoppingCenter”isthebiggestoneinEurope.

7．BritishDiaandThatcher’sMedicine

AfterworldwarII,Britain’sdecliningproductivity,soaringinflationandhigh

unemploymentrategavebirthtothemockingterm“BritishDia”,whichmake

n’ssicknesswas

caudbyitxcessivesocialism,underwhichnationalizedindustriesand

state-ownedenterprismadethinprofitorranataloss,anditsfrom-cradle-to-grave

fectsocialcuritysystemwasdesignedtohelppeople

wheneveritisneeded.(maternity,sickness,disability,unemployment…),butitwasa

,thegovernmenthadtoincreataxes,which

negativelyaffectthedevelopmentofBritain’conomy.

AfterMargaretThatcherwalectedBritain’sfirsteverwomanPrimeMinisterin

1979,sheadoptedanewprogramtocurethe“BritishDia”.Thatcher’snew

program,knownasaThatcherism:

tedtightfiscalandmonetarypolicies,curbsonthetradeunions,

reductionoftaxes,andprivatizationofstate-ownedenterpris;

ostimulatecompetitionbyreducinggovernmentinferenceand

encouragingfreebusiness;

edtopushforwardwith“popularcapitalism”toturncompany

employeesintoshareholdersandencouragepeopletostarthouhold

business.

17

Thatcher’spolicyimprovedtheimageotheUnitedKingdomandenabledhertowina

widenedgapbetweenthepoorand

therich,highunemploymentrate,increadcrimerateandcomplainsaboutthepoor

qualityofsocialrvicesaretheAchilles’otbenecessaryfora

successfulpoliticalleadertopleaeveryvoter,butnopoliticiancanaffordtoleave

theproblemofpublicconcernunttledforlong.

Britainisanurbannationwithalotoffamouscities:(trytofindthemonthemap)

London:thecapital,commercialcenterandhubofcommunication

Birmingham:tothenorthwestofLondon,thecondlargestcity,wellknownfor

itsheavyindustries,bilesandothermetalproducts

Manchester:tothenorthwestofBirmingham,thecentersoftextileindustries

Liverpool:tothewestofManchester,thecondlargestaportinBritain

Edinburgh:thecapitalofScotland,ariverandportcity

Glasgow:anotherlargecityinScotland,ship-buildingcenter,largeironandsteel

industry

Belfast:thecapitalofNorthernIreland

Cardiff:capitalofWales

ASignificantRoleofLondon

ThenationalcapitalofthecountryisLondon,situatedontheRiverThamesnear

toryofLondoncanbetraced

opulationof

about7million,19th

centuryitwasthelargestandmostinfluentialcityintheworld,thecenterofalarge

ghitnolongerranksamongtheworld’smost

populouscities,Londonisstilloneoftheworld’smajorfinancialandcultural

capitals.

gestCityintheCountry(Pictures)

LondonisdividedintothecityofLondon&thecountyofGreaterLondon(suburbs

andcountrysidearoundLondon),whichissituatedontheThames

Rivernearitsmouthwithlotsofplacesofinterests:

WestminsterAbbey:atraditionalplacewherethecoronationceremonyof

Englishkingandqueentakeplace,achurchcemetery

wheretheVIP,themostdistinguishedstatesmen,authors,

artistsandscientistsareburied.(Poets’Corner)

’sCathedral:110metershigh

TowerofLondon:Onceudasamilitaryfortress,astheking’spalaceand

finallyasaprison,nowitisconvertedintoamuumof

18

ter:traditionaluniformed

guardsoftheTower

LondonBridge:oneoftheoldestbridges

ParliamentBuilding:magnificent

BigBen:thechimesofitcanbeheardallovertheworldontheBBCradio

WhiteHall:usuallystandsfortheBritishGovernmentwithsomeofthemost

importantofficesofthegovernment,fice,

WarOffice…

No.10DowningStreet:usuallystandsfortheBritishPrimeMinister,official

residenceoftheBritishPrimeMinister

BuckinghamPalace:theLondonresidenceoftheQueenandtheloyalfamily

HydePark:alonglake,Serpentine&speaker’sCornerforprotesters,whichis

theepitomeofBritishfreedomofspeech.(criticismofthe

royalfamilyisnotallowedbytradition)

TheLondonStockExchange&BankofEngland:famousstreetandbuildings

forbusiness

MadameTussaud’s:fascinatingexhibitionoflife-likewaxfiguresoffamous

menandwomenallovertheworld

RoyalObrvatoryatGreenwich:GMT

TheUniversityofLondonisthebiggestuniversityinEngland(neartheOxford)

TrafalgarSquare:alsoknownasthePigeonSquare

TheWestEnd:ashoppingdistrictwithmanylargedepartmentstoresand

expensivehotels

TheEastEnd:thepoorestdistrictinLondon,crowdedmainlywithunskilled

workers

turalCentre

Londonitlfisalivingmuum,withmorethan2000yearsofhistoryand

lsoboastsoneofthegreatestconcentrationsofsignificantmuums

(morethan100)elinthisculturalcrownisthe

BritishMuum,with4km(2.5mi)ofgalleriesandmorethan4millionexhibits.

TheUniversityofLondonisthebiggestuniversitywiththelargestenrollmentin

s,itisthehometoallthemajornewspapersandTVstations.

inessandFinancialCentre

LondonisattheheartofBritain’anone-thirdofBritain’s

populationandeconomicactivityisconcentratedinsoutheasternEngland,inand

ualsizeofLondon’conomy,estimatedin1997tobeabout

$122billion,ana

19

hundredoftheworld’smajorcompanieshavetheirheadquartersinLondon.

WhatLondonersdoforalivinghaschangedconsiderablysincethecitywasa

cturinghassteadily

nting

portantareelectricaland

electronicengineering;food,drink,andtobacco;andchemicalsandsyntheticfibers.

Farmoreimportantisthervicesctor,whichemploys85percentofLondon’s

ledbyfinancialandbusinessrvicesconcentratedintheCity.

Londonisamajorglobalfinancialcenter,rivaledonlybyTokyoandNewYork.

attractsmorethan24

millionvisitorsannually,g

touristsisthoughttoemployatleast300,000Londoners.

tofGovernment

LondonisidentifiedwiththecenterofBritishgovernmentasreprentedbythe

ally,Londonitlfhashadarather

uneasyrelationshipwiththecentralgovernmentsinceWilliamtheConqueror

guaranteedtheCityadegreeofautonomybynotmakingthecitizenschangetheway

theyrantheCitywhenhetookpower;hedidnotwanttoupthispositionbygoing

againstthecitizensofthestrongestcityinEngland.

LikeeverythingelaboutLondon,

unemploymentrateinLondonin1996was10%,comparedtothenational

unemploymentaverageofabout7%this

unemploymentisaresultofthedeclineinmanufacturingjobsandmanualand

unskilledlaborwork,assubstantialemploymentgrowthtakesplaceinctorssuchas

advertising,marketing,andcomputing,whichrequiretechnicalandprofessional

skills.

LondonwasthetargetofamajorterroristattackinJuly2005whenfourbombs

bingstargetedtrainsinthecity’s

20

inves

attackskilled56people,includingthesuspectedbombers,andinjuredabout700

bingscamethedayaftertheInternationalOlympicCommittee

h

PrimeMinisterTonyBlairsaidthebombingswereaterroristattacktimedtocoincide

ytwoweeksaftertheJuly7attack,another

apparentterroristattacktargetedthecity’r,

officialssaidonlythedetonators(雷管)ofthebombxploded,andnoonewas

injured.

Explainthefollowingterm:

London:’s

’stheculturalandbusiness

centerandtheheadquartersofthevastmajorityofBritain’sbig

’snotonlythefinancialcenterofthenation,butalsooneof

thethreemajorinternationalfinancialcentersintheworld.

1．theDukesandDuchess(公爵夫人，女公爵)

2．theMarquessandMarchioness(候爵夫人，女候爵)

3．theEarlsandCountess[kauntis](伯爵夫人，女伯爵)

4．theViscountsandViscountess[vai’kauntis](子爵夫人，女子爵)

5．theBaronsand‘Baroness(男爵夫人，女男爵)

21

Chapter2EnglishHistory

Importanthistoricalevents:when,who,what,significance(positive&negative)

dleAges:(1066---16thC)

manConquest---theestablishmentoffeudalisminEngland

TheclearesthistoricaliteminthegeneralknowledgeofmostBritish

people,soclearthatithasbecomeasortofjokeistheyear1066,when

theFrench-speakingNormansunderWilliamtheConquerorinvaded

EnglandfromFrance,defeatingtheSaxonkingHaroldattheBattleof

mwasmadeKingandcrownedinWestminsterAbbeyon

ChristmasDay,manlineofkingsbegantoreignover

ntQueenisoneofhisdescendents.

manconquestmarkedtheformalestablishmentoffeudalism

lesgottheirland,knownasthefief,formtheking

andwereobligedtopaycertainduestothekingandtosupplya

numberofarmedmenaccordingtothesizeoftheirestatesintimeof

mestablishedhisfirmcontroloverEnglandandachieved

headministrationof

justiceunderthecontroloftheking,strengthenedhisownpowerby

replacingEnglishbishopswithNormansandmakinghimlfheadof

thebishops,builttheTowerofLondonasamilitaryfortressand

contestsforauthoritybetweentheking,baronandthechurchnever

stopped.

manwayoflifeandFrenchcivilizationhadagreatinfluence

ontheAnglo-Saxons,manaristocracy

includingthekingandthecourtcontinuedtospeakFrenchforabout3

centuries,whileEnglish,whichwascalledMiddleEnglish,wasthe

r,thespeechofthecommon

ndofthe14thcentury,Englishagain

dnotonlybythe

y

termmployedbytheNormanswereadoptedintotheEnglish

language,suchaswordsdealingwithgovernment,landholding,war,

hunting,cooking,costume,thechurchandthelaw,,swine,

sheep---veal,pork,mutton(castpearlsbeforeswine)

TheNormanConquestwasthelastinvasionofEnglandbyforeignersand

lish

peopleneverfeltbitterwithit,becauthediversityoqualitiescaudby

itturnedouttotheiradvantage.

IandhisReform:---theconsolidationoffeudalisminEngland

SocialunrestbeforeHenryII---hismeasuretocentralizepower---

appearanceofthejurysystemandcommonlaw---Henry’squarrelwith

22

ThomasBecket

theyearsfromthedeathofHenryI,3rdsonofWilliam,tothe

coronationofHenryII,great-grandnephewofWilliam,theproblem

ofwhoshouldsucceedtothethronecaudgreatdisorderinEngland.

enryII,founderofthePlantagenetdynasty(Houof

Plantagenet)becamekingofEngland,hemadegreatefforttoreduce

thebarons’powerandgetridofalltheexcusforfeudalbaronial

wars(internalwars)

atreformofHenryIIonthecourtgavebirthtoanewsystem

---thecircuitcourtsandthejurysystem,whichledtotheformationof

commonlaw,“theJudge-madelaw”,badontheunifiedtraditions

I

alsotriedtoreformtheBishop’scourts(churchcourts)intotheking’s

courtsagainsttheoppositionofThomasBecket,theArchbishopof

Canterbury

Asaresultofallthomeasures,HenryIIconsolidatedthefeudalsystem

inEngland.

atCharter---beginningofParliament

KingJohnandhistrouble---theGreatCharter---appearanceofParliament

andthe2hous

ood,alegendaryoutlaw,wholivesinthewoods,robbingthe

richbuthelpingthepoor,

partlyshowedthattherewererioussocialproblemsatthattime.

onsaswellascommonpeoplebecamemoreandmore

discontentedwithJohn’19thof

June,1215,theyforcedKingJohntosignandsweartoobrvethe

charter,ostimportant

documentinEnglishhistory,almostasimportanttotheEnglishasthe

DeclarationofIndependencetotheAmericans;ithasbeencalled“the

cornerstoneofEnglishhistory”;thebarons’pursuitfortheirrightand

freedomlimitedtheKing’regardedasthebasisofa

atCharterttherulesforthe

EnglishandAmericanlegalsystem,aslistedinoneprovision:“No

freemanshallbeimprisonedorbanishedorpunishedinanyway

unlessconvictedbyajuryofhisfellowcitizens.”

heGreatCharter,thebaronsbecomestrongerandstronger.

GraduallytheParliament(aFrenchwordwhichmeans“tospeak”---a

placewherethingsarespokenabout,ordiscusdanddebated)came

mons(knightsandcitizens)andthelords(barons

andbishops)erenoelections,no

parties,andtheHouofLordswasmoreimportantthantheHouof

Commonstilltheendofthe19thc.

TheMagnaCartaisnowintheBritishMuum,London.

23

eofFeudalisminEngland

TheHundredYear’sWar---mixingupofAnglo-Normansandthe

English---appearanceofgunpowderanddeclineofknighthood---the

BlackDeathanditffect---theWarsoftheRosanditffect.

dredYear’sWar:

TheFrench-speakingNormankingofEnglandhadclofamily

connectionsandinsomecaxtensiveterritoriesinFranceitlf.

woolmarketandterritoryledtotheHundred’sYear’sWar

(1337---1453),whichlastedonandoff(intermittently)forabout100

oughtentirelyinFrance,andthewholeofFrancenearly

ally,however,partlythroughthe

inspirationofthebravegirlJoanofArc,andpartlythroughthe

effectiveuofguns,whichhadonlyjustbeeninvented,theFrench

drovetheEnglishfromtheircountryforgood.

Becauofthewar,therulingNormansbegantoregardEnglandas

endof14thcentury,theEnglishlanguagewasre-establishedasthe

officiallanguagetoreplacetheFrenchlanguage.

Whileinwar,theneedofmoneyforgunpowderandgunsplacedthe

merchantsandcraftsmen,theforefatheroftheBourgeoisie,inavery

alsospeedupthedeclineof

feudalisminEngland,fortheintroductionofgunsandgunpowderin

warmadecastlesofthefeudallordasytobestormed.

theHundredYear’sWarof,thedeadlyBlackDeathof

1348---1349,anepidemicdiaspreadbyratfleas,killedalmost

orcebecamemorevaluablefor

epeasantuprisingchangedthefeudal

relationshipbetweenthepeasantsandlords.

oftheRos:(1455-1485)

TheWarfoughtbetween2branchesoftheEnglishroyalfamilywho

gotsuchanamebecauthebadge

oftheHouofLancasterwasaredroandthatoftheHouof

rethewarwasastrugglebetweenthe

commercial-mindedgentryofthesouthandthebackwardlandowners

dwiththeaccessionofHenryTudoras

HenryVII,thefounderoftheTudorMonarchy,whoreprentedthe

putanendtotheMiddleAges.

16thcentury:TheTudorMonarchyandtheRisingBourgeoisie

oundofthisperiod:

Theinventionofprintingmadebooksmucheasiertoproduceandthereforemuch

cheaper,ideaofRenaissancespread

24

sance(fromFrenchmeaning“rebirth”)

actuallyitmeantthegreatvarietyofchanges,whichEuropeunderwentpolitically,

economicallyandculturallybetween1450and1600,whichisthesignofthe

orMonarchy

supportedthedevelopmentoftheRenaissance.

ItwastheageofgreatvoyagesofdiscoverybymanlikeColumbusandbeginning

oftheimperialistexpansionastheTudorMonarchybuiltastrongnavytoprotect

itsforeigntradeandexpansion.

ItwasalsothebeginningoffreedomofthoughtintheChristianreligion.

ProtestantChurchessprangupwiththedeclineinthePope’spoliticalpowerand

religiousauthority.

IIIandReformationinEnglandandtheChurchofEngland

BeingtiredofthecontroloftheRomanCatholicChurch,KingHenryVIII,

supportedbytherisingBourgeoisie,declaredthatheandnotthePopewasthe

headofthechurchinEngland,lishChurchhadbrokenawayfromthe

centralorganizationofChristianityby“theActofSupremacy”.Thedispute

nry’s

daughter,Mary,acatholic,becameQueen,shehadsomanyProtestantsburntto

deaththatshewasnicknamed“BloodyMary”.

ethI&thegoldeneraofBritishhistory

WhenMarywassucceededbyherhalf-sisterElizabeth,thebest-lovedqueen,

whomaininterestlayincreatingastrongunitedcountry,thereligious

Reformationwasfulfilledbytheestablishmentofthe“AnglicanChurch”(Church

ofEngland).zabethan

stisliterature,

literatureofShakespeare;firsttime

Englishshipsbegantoexploretheworldandtradewithdistantcountries.

17thc.---TheEnglishBourgeoisRevolution

ngJamesIandhissonCharlesIbelievedinthe“DivineRightofKings”,

gshouldn’

thekingwassupportedbytheChurchofEnglandwhiletheParliamentwasunder

thecontrolofPuritans,1620,agroupof

102PuritanssailedfortheNewWorldaboardtheshipMayflowertoavoid

reknownasthePilgrimFathersinAmericanhistory.

Cromwell,

countrybecameformorethan10yearsasortofrepublic.

heRestorationofCharlesII,thekingwasneveragainallowedtogoagainst

eCatholickingJamesIIwasforcedtofleeto

France,thethronewasofferedtohisProtestantdaughterMaryandherhusband

25

mand

MaryjointlyacceptedtheBillofRights(1689),whichconfirmedtheprincipleof

Parliamentarysupremacy,guaranteedfreespeechwithinbothhousof

ParliamentandexcludedandCatholicsfromsuccessiontotheEnglishthrone.

ThisistheendofEnglishBourgeoisRevolutionanditannouncestheformal

establishmentofaconstitutionalMonarchy.

18thC.---theIndustrialRevolution

Definition:Itmeanstheinventionandapplianceofvariousmachinesinproduction

andthechanges,whichtransformedBritainfromaruralandagricultural

countryintoamainlyurbanandmanufacturingone

Background:FromtheendoftheHundredYear’lish

Bourgeoisieaccomplishedits“primitiveaccumulationofcapital”through

sancestirredthedevelopment

ofscienceandtheestablishmentofcapitalistconstitutionalmonarchy

madetheIndustrialRevolutionpossible.

Process:Itfirstbeganinthetextileindustryandthenwiththeinventionofsteam

engine,theincreadproductionandtradepromotedthetransportation

revolution.(firstrailway,steamboat)

Effect:By1830s,Britainbecamethe“workshopoftheworld”.Italsogavebirthto

tradictionbetweenthecapitalistclassandthe

proletariatbecamethebiggestsocialproblem.

19thc.---rioftheBritishEmpire

ictoriaandHerTime---the“politesociety”inEnglishhistory

ThelongestreigninBritishhistory1837-1901madeQueenVictoriawellknown

ndageofnationaldevelopmentandnationaloptimism

kingclass,ttleddownto

dwasarrivingattheageofmachinery.

Developmentofproductivitybroadenedmen’sfieldofvisionandincreadtheir

interestinscientificknowledge,publishedhis“originofSpecies”.

RapidsocialchangesgaveinspirationtothefamouswritersasDickens,Bronte

ictfamilydiscipline

lso,initslaterstage,

anageofimperialism.

nExpansion:

AftertheIndustrialRevolution,Britainbecametheworkshopoftheworldand

lishlanguagewas

nexpansionandaggressionwerecauandeffect

ofBritain’tishfleetcontrolledthemainarouts

tishEmpirebecameknownasthe

sun-never-ttingempire.

26

VI.20thc.---FalloftheBritishEmpire

enwokeuptogaintherighttovote,whichwasknownas“suffragette”

movement.

eintheeconomicdevelopmentcaubythe2worldwarsmadeitless

sstillanimportantpartinorganizingabetteranda

saferworldasdevelopedcountryintheworld.

ThehistoryofBritainisahistoryoftheconflictsbetweentheMonarchyandthe

Church&theMonarchyandthelordsorlatertheparliament.

ChapterThree:TheMonarchy&theGovernment

SectionOne:TheMonarchy

HowtounderstandtheroleofMonarchyinUK:“Shereigns,butdoesnotrule.”

rocessofthedeclineinpowerfortheMonarchy:TheGreatCharterof

lpoweroftheMonarchywasbroken

1642,theMonarchywasvery

powerfulwithsupremeauthority:

eexecutive,legislativeandjuridicalpower

onmadefortheelectionoftheArchbishop

iecesofland&wealthtohimlfandhisfollowers

nce1642,’staketheprent

eQueenwhosummonsanddissolvesParliament.

BillspasdbytheParliamentmustwintheRoyalAsntbeforegoingintoeffect.

Sheappointsministersandotherimportantofficials(ontheadviceofthePrime

Minister).cludes

fersnobletitlesand

upreme

eality,

onlydoeswhattheParliamentandPrimeMinisterwanthertodoautomatically

withoutanyalternative,becauanydisagreementfromherwouldbe

unconstitutional.

theuofhavingaqueenoraking?---Nouatall?

Asalongestablishedtradition,theMonarchyisthesymboloftheEnglishnation

anesntialpartof

ChristmasDay,theQueengivesaspeechonTVandradio.

SectionTwo:TheParliament---thelawmakingbody

fLords:theupperhou

Members:bishops,peoplewithnobletitles,somearehereditary,,

Marquess,Earl(Countess),ViscountandBaron(Baroness);someare

distinguishedpeoplewithgreatachievementstitledas“lifepeerage”.Allthe

sidentofthehouiscalledtheLord

Chancellor.

27

Function:atesareofhigherlevelthanthatofthelowerhou,becau

someofthemareexpertsofdifferentfields.

reamendedthroughtheirinfluence.

TheHouofLordscanonlydelayabillforuptooneyear,butifitisprented

tothemacondtime,theymustpassit.

fCommons:thelowerHou

Itismadeupof651MembersofParliament(MPs).ThegeneralelectionofMPs

ty,whichwinssufficientatsin

theHouofCommonsatageneralelection,isaskedtoformthegovernmentby

erPartyknownastheOppositionPartyisrequiredtositonthe

backbencherssoastogivethenameto“backbenchers”(unimportantpersons).

ThemainfunctionoftheHouofCommonsislawmakingandtheprocessis

characterizedbyheateddebatesbetweentheGovernmentandtheOpposition.

Stepsforthebillbecomingalaw(act):

cementintheHou(Thebillisputforwardforthefirsttime)---The

FirstReading

entsanddebatesinlowerhou

rtheSecondReading

ementofwording(nttoaspecialroom)

rdReading

albytheHouofLords.(debatesandamendments)

urebytheMonarch

SectionThree:TheBritishGovernment:

Itistheexecutivebodyofthecountry,calledHerMajesty’sGovernmentwith

leusofthe

Governmentisknownasthecabinet,whichiscompodofthePrimeMinisterand

headsofthemostimportantdepartments,erofDefen,theForeign

Secretary,thechancelloroftheExchequer(inchargeoffinance)andHomeSecretary

(inchargeoflaw,orderandpublicsafety).Someimportantadministrative

departments:HMTreasury;HomeOffice;Foreign&CommonwealthOffice;Ministry

ofDefen.

Whenapartywinsthemajorityoftheatsinthelowerhouatageneral

election,themonarchwillautomaticallyappointthepartyleaderPrimeMinisterand

meMinisterwillchooheadsof

departmentsfromamongtheMPsandaskthemonarchtoappointthemaccordingly.

SincetheGovernmentcommandsthemajorityoftheatsintheHouofCommons,

theCabinet’eritso

happensthattheGovernment’simportantpolicyfailstopasstheHouofCommons,

thecabinethastoresigninabodyandtheOppositionPartywillformanew

government.

ChapterFour

28

ionalSystemandschools:

Allchildrenaregrantedfreeeducationatstate-runschoolsfromtheageof5to

edn’tpayanyfeeandtheycangettextbooksaswellasstationaryfreeof

charge,whichiscalled“compulsoryeducation”.Thestate-runschoolsarecompletely

eschools,whicharecalledprepschoolsandpublic

schools,relyontuitionandfeespaidbytheirpupilsbesidestheendowmentfund.

Certificates(diploma)arenotawardedbyschools,butbytheexamboards.

There2majorcertificates:CSE(CertificateofSecondaryEducation)&GCE

(GeneralCertificateofEducation),whichhas2levels,“O”(ordinary)leveland“A”

(advanced)ancedLevelGCEexaminationisveryimportant;foritis

onther

GCEisintendedforpupilsofanacademicbiaswhileCSEisdesignedfortho

pupilswhoarelessacademicallyable.

EducationinBritainisnotashighlycentralizedasitisinmanyothercountries.

TheCentralDepartmentofEducationandScienceinWhitehallguides,advisand

inspects,buttheplanningandorganizationofeducationisinthehandsofthe163

LocalEducationAuthorities(L.E.A.)under3differentsystems:

mmarSchoolSystem:

Nurry(2-5)------Primary:Infants’(5-7)&Junior(7-11)------“eleven

plus”------condary:Grammar(11-18studentswithhighmarks)&Secondary

Modern(11-16)

GrammarSchoolshavewell-educatedteachersandfineequipmentandtheir

aryModern

Schoolsmakeapointofgivingeducationinstructions,whichareconsideredtobe

helpfulinthepupilsfuturework.

prehensiveSecondarySchoolsystem:

Nurry(2-5)------Primary(5-11)------(without“elevenplus”)------the

ComprehensiveSecondarySchool(11-16)------bypassingCSEexamination,students

canleaveschoolaccordingtolaw;bypassingGCEexamination,studentsare

admittedtouniversitiesbadoncompetition.

lic(private)Schoolsystem:

Prep(preparatory)school(8-13)------commonentranceexamination------public

school(13-18)

Thepublicschool,alsoknownas“theindependentschool”,isgenerally

consideredtobelong-establishednobles’school,,Harrowand

Winchester,Schoolspaygreatattentionto

theworkofdevelopingpupils’abs,gymnasia,

theirteachersare

graduatesfromOxfordandCambridge.

sitiesandColleges:

29

3-4yearsinuniversities------BA(BachelorofArts)&BSc(Bachelorof

Science)------atleastoneyear------MA&MSc,MED(MasterofEducation)&

ML(MasterofLaws)------3-4years----PhD(DoctorofPhilosophy)

universities:(foundedbeforetheyear1600)

enow

themostprestigiousuniversitiesinBritainandwellknownfortheirtutorial

system,whichencourageindependentthoughtandkeepsthestudents

informedofthenearestachievementsinScienceandtechnologybythe

importanceofthe2universitiescanbeeninthefactthatmanyofthe

EnglishPrimeMinistersaregraduatesfromthemandOxfordhasmorethan

Cambridge.

brickUniversities:

Theyareprovincialuniversitiesoftheperiod1850-1930,duringwhichthe

Universityisoneofthem.

universities:

Polytechnics:calledthe“comprehensives”offurthereducation

AdultEducation

Part-timeEducation

OpenUniversity:“Universityoftheair”------aneducationalsystemwhich

wouldmakeuofTV,radioandcorrespondence

cours

ia:

ss:(newspapers&periodicals)

mpletelyfreetosayanythingyou

r,itislimitedbythe“DefenAdvisoryNotice”andwouldbeaccud

bythe“PressComplaintsCommission”iftherewereslanderandpornography.

pers:

dailypapershavenoSundayedition,butthereareSundayPapers,whichare

theSundaypapersarelessriousand

oftenreportsaboutscandalsandcrimesforpeople’them

sageneraldistinctiontobemade

mercontainsnewsof

tercontainlocalnews,

ofinteresttoaparticularregionorcountyortown,andareonlysoldinthat

alpapersaregenerallyclasdaither“quality”or“popular”.

Thequalitypapershavemorecomprehensivecoveragetomeettheneedofthe

s,

therearesomemid-marketpapers,whichcoverthemid-market.

Someoftheinfluentialnationaldailypapers:

Popularpapers:tabloid(politicallyinsympathywiththeLaborParty)

30

DailyMirrorTheSunDailyStar(MorningStar)

Mid-marketpapers:

DailyMailDailyExpress

Qualitypapers:broadsheets(politicallyinsympathywiththeConrvatives)

TheTimesTheGuardianDailyTelegraphFinancialTimesThe

Independent

SomeofthepopularnationalSundaypapers:

TheObrverSundayTimesSundayExpressSunday

Telegraph

NewsoftheWorldSundayMirrorThePeople

Alltheimportantnewsismainlyprovidedbythenewsagency:Reuters

icals:(weeklyormonthly)

Themostfamousofallis“punch”,whichminglespoliticswithsocialsatireand

herimportantones:Economist,

NewStatesmenandSpectator

ndTV

(BritishBroadcastingCorporation)iscompodof4majorparts:

BBCTelevisionBBCNetworkRadioBBCWorldServiceBBC

Worldwide

fluentialTVChannels:

BBC1andBBC2----whicharemainlyfinancedbypaymentsfrompeoplewho

havetelevisionreceivingts,sothereisnoadvertising.

ITV(IndependentTelevision,alsoknownasChannel3),Channel4andChannel

5----whicharemanagedbyvariouscompaniesfor

commercialpurpowithmuchadvertising.

eactivities

rspectatorsports:

football/soccer---earliestFA(FootballAssociation)&FootballLeague,badfameof

“footballhooligans”

rugbyfootball(rugger)

cricket(nationalgame)---tooslowtobepopular

theWimbledonOpenLawnTennisChampionship

horracing

ipantSport:cycling,fishing,hunting

ainment:

horracebettingfootballpoolsBingo

dramamusic(classical/popular)---1960’sBeatles;1980’sRolling

Stones

film:MostofthefilmsshowninBritainarefromHollywood(60%).Only14%are

home-madeand26%ore,Britainisfollowing

Americantrendsinleisure,sportsactivities,hobbiesandotherthings.

31

Pub(publichou)isthefavoriteplaceformostEnglishpeople.

hnames:

ItwasnotuntiltheNormanConquestthattheEnglishpeoplegraduallygottheir

thattheirnameswerejustsinglewords,

e.g.“Firth”

theSurnameshavesomespecificmeaning:

sion:CarpenterThatcherTailorSmithCooperBarber

ClerkCook

/village:YorkKentLondon

eofthebodyandcharacter:SmallLongWiShort

estoshowrelationshipoffatherandson:

firstname+son:JohnsonWilsonJacksonJamesonGrayson

fullname+Junior(Jr.)

movingintoEnglandweremarkedwithfollowingnames:

Mac-Mc-:oftheScottishorigin:MacArthurMcDonaldScott

O’-:oftheIrishorigin:O’HenryO’Neil

Fitz-:ofNormanorigin:FitzjohnFitzwilliam

WallacefromWales

Travelers/TravelNewcome/NewcombStrange

smeaningsofgivennames:

LaceLilyGraceSusanDianaHelen

AndrewPeterRichardCharlesFrancisEdgarLewes

John

mes:

Elizabeth:BessBessieBethBestyBettyElsieEliLibbyLiza

Liz

Jane:Jan

Ann:NancyAnnetta

Margaret:MargieMargot

Mary:MarianaMarion

William:BillBillieWillWillie

Richard:Dick

James:JimJimmy

Robert:Bobby

32

VolumeIITheUnitedStatesofAmerica

Chapter1PanoramicView

tedStatesandtheAmericans:

&position:

Fullname:theUnitedStatesofAmerica

Popularlyudones:theUnitedStates(US)AmericatheStates

Capital:WashingtonD.C.(DistrictofColumbia)

Area:the4thlargestcountrywith9.4millionsquarekilometers

Location:Itiswellplacedtoparticipateinworldtrade:TothewestofMainland

AmericaisthePacificOceanacrosswhichtheUStradesitsproductsfor

astoftheUSliestheAtlanticOcean

whichisstillthemostimportantaroutefromAmericatoEurope,one

ofAmerica’smostimportanttradingpartners,

UShas2friendlylandneighbors:ndary

stareaofthe

GulfofMexicoisthemostimportantoil-producingregionoftheUS.

:(MeltingPot)

UShasapopulationof200-300million,amongwhichthemajorityaredescendants

Americansregardthe

PilgrimFathers,agroupof102PuritanswhocamefromEnglandandfoundedthe

mothertongue,English,becametheofficiallanguageofthenewnationandtheir

escendantsarethe

mostinfluentialinAmericansociallifeandtheycontrolmostofthenationalwealth.

TherearealsoimmigrantsfromotherEuropeancountries,suchasFrance,Germany,

Italy,tepopulationisthemajoritywhilepeopleofother

ethnicgroups,includingtheblacks,Hispanics,Asian-Americans,andthenative

Indians,areknownastheminorities.

SincetheUnitedStatesisanationofmanyethnicgroups,itisalsoknownasa

“meltingpot”,meaningimmigrantsfromdifferentnationsallovertheworldhave

aresimilarcustomsandmanners;

discriminationdoes

existinAmerica,butatthesametimeAmericansocietydisplayremarkableresilience

andabsorptivenessinassimilatingornaturalizingimmigrantsofdifferentnational

ore,the

Americansocietyissaidtobea“fluid”or“mobile”societyinwhichpeoplechange

lievethatGodhelpshimwhohelpshimlf.

ainregions&climate:

UScanbegenerallydividedinto3basicareas:

TheAtlanticSeacoastandtheAppalachianMountainsintheeast;

ThegreatMississippiRiverBasininthemiddle;(theNortheasternpartisknownas

theMiddleWest)

33

TheRockieswesttothePacificOcean

Americahasvariedgeographicalfeatureswithlargemountains,round-tappedhills,

bigplains,geMid-westplain(calledtheGreat

Plain)providesareliablebaforAmerica’atLakes

ontheNortharemostimportantlakesinAmericatosupplyfreshwater.

inly

ftheheavilypopulatedpartsoftheUS

(theastern)

thewarmoceanstreamsthesouthwestpart(California)enjoysclimateofnoextremes.

Much

knownofthearethehurricanes,whichafflictthesoutheast(Florida)particularlyin

atingintheCaribbean,eachhurricaneiscalledbyagirl’s

handforceislikelytobepredictedlongenoughforpeopletobewarned

r,the

violentwindstorm,tornadoesinmid-westarelesasytopredictsinceitis

rproblemoftheeasternhalfofUSbehindthe

AppalachianMountains,inthewholebasinoftheMississippi,isthedangerofflood.

Inwintercoldandwindareparticularlyinteninthegreatplainsofthemiddlewest

ockyMountainstheclimateiswhat

wouldbeexpectedinamountainarea,withheavysnowinthewinterandbrilliant

sunshineandwarmdaysinthesummer.

4.50statesand15importantcities(map)

NewEngland:Maine,Vermont,NewHampshire,Massachutts,RhodeIslandand

Connecticut

ThisareaisaboutthesamesizeasEnglandandWalesandremblesoldEnglandin

manyways.

Readthenamescorrectlyandsignthemonthemap:

50states(P400)

15cities:BostonNewYorkPhiladelphiaPittsburghChicagoDetroit

ghamMiamiHoustonNewOrleans

AtlantaSeattleSanFranciscoLosAngeles

Biggeststates:AlaskaTexas

Largestcities:NewYorkLosAngelesChicago

alEconomy:

“WhentheUnitedStatescoughs,therestoftheworldcatchescold,”saysome

economists.

TheUShaslessthan6%oftheworld’spopulationbutitproducesabout28%of

erichestandbyfarthelargestindustrial

sofeconomicstrengthandtechnological

development,rstinmany

advancedfields,includinginformationtechnology(IT),computer

34

engineering,space,nuclearenergy,aeroplane,electronicsandthemilitary

ongtheleadingproducersofmachinery,oil,electrical

energy.

IBM(InternationalBusinessMachines)

MicroSoftApplehp(hotproperty)Dell

FordMotorCompany(Ford)GeneralMotorsCorporation(GM)

Chrysler

BoeingAircraftCompany

NASA(NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration),theUSspace

agency

Generallyspeaking,theUSeconomyconsistsofthreectors:

Themarketctor:Smallbusinessincludesmostofthefarms,alarge

proportionofthetertiaryindustry,lf-employedtruckdrivers,and

smallenterprimployingonetoveralhundredworkers.

Corporatector:thebigcorporationsknownasbigbusiness,whichdominates

thenationaleconomy

Public(government)ctor:theroleplayedbythegovernmentintheeconomic

fieldsincetheGreatDepressionofthe1930s

ryandcities:

developmentindustryinAmericabeganinthe1830swiththelarge-scale

constructionofrailroads.

Americaaccomplisheditsindustrializationinthecondhalfofthe19thcentury.

America’landis

oneofAmerica’smostimportantindustrialregions,called“theworkshopofthe

nation”westisAmerica’sleadingcenterofheavyindustry,

AmericanSouthisanewlydevelopedindustrialregionaccountingforover90%of

America’ificCoast,whichiscalledthelandofopportunity,

isfirstinmanufacturing(ufactureofaircraftpartsandmissiles),

ship-building,andfoodproduction.(TurntoTextbookP221-229)

“NewYorkCityisnotAmerica”Americanfriendsaresuretotellyouwhenyou

arrive.“YoumusteBoston,visitNiagaraFalls,gotoVirginia,flydowntoFlorida.”

NewYork:StatueofLibertyCentralParkUNBuilding

RockefellerCenter

Blocks:streetrunningfromeasttowest

Avenue:streetrunningfromnorthtosouth

WashingtonD.C.:ItliesbetweenVirginiaandMarylandonthePotomacRiver.

AlltheAmericansaretaughtatschoolthatGeorge

Washingtonwas“thefatherofAmerica”.Thereareveral

othertownscalledWashingtoninUS.

Scientificinventionshavealwaysbeenimportantinpromotingthedevelopment

19thCenturysawtheintroductionofnewfarm

machinery,foodprocessingplants,thetelegraph,thetelephone,electric

35

lightbulbs,20thCenturyhaswitnesd

evengreaterhigh-technologyproductsincludejetjumbos,spaceshuttles,

ultra-highspeedcomputers,microchips,opticalfibrecommunications

instruments,movable(pocket,mobile)telephoneandmicrowaveovens.

ltureandHusbandry:

eofthemostimportant

industriesofUS,whichisbadupon“familyfarms”,Farmersarefreetolltheir

gesizeofthecountryandvariedclimatic

conditionsmakeitpossibletoproducemanykindsoffarmproductsinlarge

6millionAmericanfarmersgrow

nearlyaquarteroftheworld’stotalgrainoutputandsupplyahalfofalltheexportsof

grainintheworld,becaumachinesareudtodoalmostallthefarmwork.

Americaistheworld’sleadingexporterandproducerofagricultureproductslikecorn,

wheat,rice,soybeans,oranges,meat,milk,apples,oats,cotton,tobacco,peanutsand

hem,cornandwheatarethestaplegrains,whichare

mainlygrownintheMidwest,knownasCornBelt&SpringWheatBelttothe

isaleading

tralPlainoftheMississippiRiversystemisthe

chiefagriculturalregion,the“BarnofAmerica”andthefoodbasketofthenationwith

armingandtruckfarmingcanbefoundinthe

industrialregionandaroundcities,a’sagricultural

limitedhomemarkethindersitssteadydevelopment.

sgetsubsidiesfromthe

Federalgovernment.

ortationandcommunication:

Withitslargeindustryandcommercialfarming,USdependstoagreatextenton

itscommunication,bothformovingpeopleandgoodsandforconveyingnewsand

informationfromoneplacetoanother.

waysoftransportation:

Inthelasthalfofthe19thCentury,railwayscompletelytransformedthe

ailwayssteadilywithdraw,the

mostpersonaltravel,peopleutheirownmotorcarsonthewide-spread

gissoexpressiveofthemodern

Americanwayoflifeasthemotorcar,withthefreedomomovementthatit

oretheAmericansaresaidtobe“anationonwheels”.Each

stategiveslicenstodrivetoitsownresidents,ngtoanewstate,

youmustpassitsdrivingtestbeforegettingalicen.

mmunication:

SincethetelephonewasfirstinventedbyanAmericanProfessorAlexander

ecommunication

ricanTelephone&

36

TelegraphCompany(AT&T)isworld’et

upajointventureinChina.

Chapter2AmericanHistory:

“Americahasnohistory,ornotmuchofit”---falopinion

esnot

meanthatthehistoryoftheUSistooshorttobeworthdiscussion,becauitisfullof

historyofAmerican’sown,ahistoryofhowthenationcameintobeing,wonits

independence,

nationofmanynations,somepeoplelikenittoheavenwhileotherscompareittohell.

13English-Americancolonies:

shsailor,AmericaVespucci,provedthatthelanddiscoveredbyColumbus

in1492wasnotIndia,butanewcontinent,which,asaresult,

hcapitalists

founded2VirginiacompaniesanddecidedtogivethenameNewEnglandtothe

1619,thecolonyhadathousandpeople.

mFathers:ModernAmericansareinclinedtolookbackespeciallytothe

PilgrimFatherswhosailedintheMayflowerin1620,forasymboloftheoriginsof

reattroublesandpercution,agroupofPuritansfrom

easternEnglandwenttotheNewWorldandfoundedatown,Plymouth,clotothe

placewherelaterBoston(inMassachutts)grimFathers

sufferedterriblehardshipsatfirstandhalfofthemdiedduringtheirfirstwintermonth;

butthowhosurvivedforthefirstyearmanagedtoliveonfishandreapaharvest

astThursdayin

Novemberof1621,theycelebratedtheirfirstThanksgivingfeasttothankGodforHis

iversaryoftheirthanksgivingfeastisstillcelebratednow.

ThanksgivingandIndependenceDayarethe2greatoccasionsbywhichAmericans

remembereachyearthe2mainstagesintheirnationalhistory,foundationand

independence.

irginiaandMassachutts,11morecoloniesweregraduallyputunderthe

controloftheEnglish:RhodeIsland,Connecticut,NewHampshire,NewYork,

NewJery,Delaware,Pennsylvania,Maryland,SouthCarolina,NorthCarolina

andGeorgia.

lyAmericancommunitieswerereligious,

ofthemwereknownasWASP(freedom

thepeoplewhochoto

ess

poormen,ndebts,flockedintoAmericancolonies,amongwhothere

orecompromiandtolerancewereencouragedin

anlibertyand

democracycouldnotbeunderstoodproperlywithouttakingintoconsiderationthe

37

colonialtimeandthedifferentbackgroundoftheearlyimmigrants,whoideals

haveprovidedmodernAmericawithaninspiration.

ofIndependence:

ound:AlltheearlyimmigrantsoftheNewWorldwereinrebellionagainst

somethingthattheydislikeintheirownenvironmentsandallwerepreparedtotake

greatrisksandfacegreathardshipsintryingtobuildanewenvironmentfor

13coloniesweremerelyregardedassuppliersofrawmaterials

ecttherightsofthecoloniesand

protestunfairtreatment,theearlyAmericanswereboundtopursuetheirindependence

fromtheBritishrulers.

tonTeaParty:TheBostonTeaPartywasoneofthemajoreventsthat

tish

GovernmentallowedtheBritishcompany,TheEastIndiaCompany,exportteatothe

ecompanycouldeasilyunderllthe

alteamerchants

ightofDecember16,

1773,abandofmenledbySamuelAdam,knownasSonsofLiberty,boarded3

he

incidentoftheBostonTeaParty,relationsbetweenEnglandandthecolonies

herewasnohopeforasatisfactoryreconciliation,

armedclashwasinevitable.

ofIndependence:FightingbetweentheBritishtroopsandAmerican

revolutionaries(militiamen)wasfiredatLexingtonintheBostonareaonApril19,

nce,greateffortsweremadebytherevolutionariestomakemoreand

morecolonistsrealizetheirinterests,theirstrengthandtheircorrectwaytosuccess

Washington,aVirginianwasappointed

comm

ledtheAmericanrevolutionaryfightersinveralyears’

AmericanvictoryatYorktownin1781,theWarofIndependenceendedin

independenceforthe13statesandstartedanewerainAmericanhistory.

larationofIndependence:AstheleadingbodyoftheIndependenceWar,the

SecondContinentalCongressappointedThomasJefferson,BenjaminFranklin,John

AdamsandsomeothermemberstodrawuptheDeclarationofIndependence,which

wasfinallydraftedbyThomasJeffersonandformallyadoptedbytheContinental

CongressonJuly4,1776,adaywhichhasbeencelebratedeachyearasIndependence

larationofIndependenceisremarkablein

thatitapproachestheproblemofAmericanindependencefromtheangleofhuman

mnlydeclares:“…P253…”Itisamasterpieceofthebourgeoispolitical

philosophy,mentofficials

plehavetherightto

luenceoftheDeclaration

ncipalpointwastoprovidealegalbasisfor

moreandmorepeopleethesignificanceandgravenatureof

38

theirstruggle.

Itsolemnlydeclares:

“Weholdthetruthtobelf-evident,thatallmenarecreatedequal,thatthey

areendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienablerights;thatamongthe

arelife,libertyandthepursuitofhappiness;thattocuretherights,

governmentareinstitutedamongmen,derivingtheirjustpowersfromthe

conntofthegoverned;thatwheneveranyformofgovernmentbecomes

destructiveoftheends,itistherightofthepeopletoalterorabolishit,andto

instituteanewgovernment,…”

Topicfordiscussion:SomeaffairsinAmericanhistorygavethelietothetalkof

unalienablehumanrights.

Collectasmuchinformationaspossibleforthefollowingimportanthistoricalevents

inAmericanhistory:

TheMonroeDoctrine;

Progressivism;

NewDeal;

RedScareandtheMeCarthyEra;

TheWatergateAffair

anConstitutionandTerritorialExpansion:

atelyaftertheirformalindependencein1783,the13stateswerenotvery

atehadtheirownconstitutionandwascalled“Independent

sovereignstates”,butsomeeconomicandsocialproblemswererousandwide

dofanewform

ofgovernmentwasfeltbyanincreasingnumberofAmericans.55delegatesfrom

allthestatexceptRhodeIslandattendedtheConstitutionalConventionin

koftheconventionwastodrawupaconstitutionso

anyheateddebatesandrepeated

compromi,upported

bysomepeople,calledFederalist,andalsometstrongoppositionbythe

stitutiondidn’twinitsfinalratificationuntilthe

midchangesincluded10

importantamendmentstotheconstitution,knownastheBillofRights,whichwas

sponsoredbyJamesMadison,“Fatheroftheconstitution”.TheBillofRights

clearlydeclaresthattheconstitutionguaranteesfreedomofreligion,freedomof

speechandthepress,therighttokeepandbeararms,therightagainstunreasonable

archesandizures,therightagainstlf-incrimination----therightforeveryone

lofRights

hadbeenconsideredbyAmericansasadefenlineagainstviolationofhuman

ricanconstitutionfoundedfederalismandintroducedchecksand

balancesintogovernmentforthefirsttimeinhistory,whichhasinspireddozensof

othercountriesekingpoliticalreform.3differentbranchesofpowersaregranted

39

bytheconstitution:theExecutive,theLegislateandtheJudicial,whichmustwork

cutivebranch,knownasthe

administration,isheadedbythePresidentwhodutyistoexecutethelawspasd

icialbranchoftheUnitedStatesiscompodofariesoflaw

courts:theSupremeCourt,11CourtsofAppeals,he

ratificationoftheconstitution,WashingtonwalectedthefirstpresidentoftheUS.

As“theFatherofAmerica”,hiscontributiontohiscountryhasalwaysbeen

cherishedbytheAmericanpeoplewhopraihimas“thefirstmaninwar,thefirst

maninpeace”.(P266oathforallAmericanpresidents)------symbolofaUnited

andindependentcountry.

roeDoctrine

In1823,Monroe,the5thpresidentofUS,proclaimedhisforeignpolicywhichlater

rofEuropeanpowerstoreestablish

newcoloniesintheNewWorld,includingUSandLatinAmerica,whichcouldbea

challengetotheindependenceandinterestsofUS,theMonroeDoctrinewasfirmly

gan

“AmericaforAmericans”wasthebasisofAmericanforeignpolicy,bywhichtheUS

governmentattemptedtoturntheNewWorldintothe“backyard”ofUS.

caleExpansiontotheWest

ple

venturedtoethefrontier,unoccupiedvirginland,werecalledfrontiermen,who

contributedalottothecharacteristicsofModernAmericanpeople:-reliance,

lf-discipline,rough,pragmatic,ansbelievethathonestyis

theprincipleoftopimportanceofeveryone,becauthesparly-populatedarea

twardmovementgreatly

asalsoaccompaniedbycrimesagainstthenative

themwerekilledoffordriventosomewastearea,calledrervation.

ThecountrybecamethecountryoftheEuropeaninvadersandlittleremainsofthe

renow

complaintsofdiscriminationagainstIndians.

IVTheCivilWar:P281

TheidealsofthePilgrimFathersandthowhottledinthenorthernstateswere

badontheideathatallmenwereequalinthesightofGodandthattheyshould

ebeginning

manyAmericansinthenorthfoundslaveryoffensivetotheirphilosophy,while

peopleinthesouth,whowerebadlyinneedofNegroesascheaplaborfortheir

plantation,

took4yearsofwar(1862-1865)tobringthembackandtofreetheslaves,but

inequalitysurvived.

“GoneWiththeWind”

40

“UncleTom’sCabin”

AbrahamLincoln(AmericanConceptofHero)

EmancipationProclamation

VProgressivismP300

VIAmericaAfterWorldWarI

Industrialboom

TheGreatDepressionP311

PresidentRoovelt’s“NewDeal”P313

VIIAmericaAfterWorldWarII

rP324

reandtheMcCarthyEraP328

ightMovementP329

ergateAffairP334

Chapter3PartiesandGovernment

calPartiesP341

LikeUK,Americanpoliticsisdominatedbycompetitionbetween2parties:

DemocraticParty:PartyoftheLeft

RepublicanParty:PartyoftheRight

(comparedwithEnglishParties)

ernment:

anpoliticalprinciples:

Theformofgovernmentisbadon3mainprinciples:

lismP347

aration(division)ofpower(checkandbalance)

tfortheconstitution&conntofthegoverned

EachAmericanissubjectto2governments:thatofhisstateandthatoftheunion,

tehaveundertheconstitution,the

primaryfunctionofprovidinglawandorder,education,publichealthandmostifthe

eralgovernmentatWashingtonis

concernedwithforeignaffairsandwithmattersofgeneralconcerntoallthestates,

includingcommercebetweenthestates.

ftheAmericanPresidentP348-----theexecutivebranch

ongressP357------thelegislativebranch

(comparewiththeEnglishParliament)

ateandtheHouofReprentativestogetherformtheCongress,called

raltaxescanbecollectedormoneyspent

41

atieswithforeigncountriesandallthe

President’sappointmenttohighofficesaresubjecttothenate’ons

ewhole

HouofReprentativesilected,torveforonly2years,Whilenatorsare

electedinrotationfor6years,withone-thirdofthenateatsupforelectionevery

2years.

ureoflaw-making:

TheprincipalworkofthecongressistomakeFederallaws,includingthelaw

withthelargeamountof

workconcerninglaw-making,boththenateandtheHouaredividedintoa

oposallawsunderdebatein

billisread,studiedintherelevantcommittee,

commentedonandamendedduringdebateinthenateortheHouinwhichitwas

introduced,asdbyonechambermustbenttothe

otherchamberfordeliberation.(carefulconsiderationanddiscussion,debate)Abill

palledbyCongressmustbeprentedtothePresidentforhissignaturebeforegoing

intoeffect.

icialBranch:P361

(comparewiththesysteminUK)

Thejudicialbranch,compodof3tiers,isheadedbytheSupremeCourtwhichis

ondtier,createdbycongress,

referstothe11federalcourtsofappealswhilethe3rdtier,alsocreatedbycongress,

ljusticesarepointedbythepresident

withnatorialapproval.

Chapter4EducationandSocialLife

IEducationandSchools:

ntroduction

(comparedwithBritishEducationalsystem)

es:TheAmericaneducationalsystemisbadontheAmericandream:

hoolsarerunontaxmoneylevied(impod,

collected)yandSecondaryeducationwas

opentoallAmericanchildrenfreeofcharge(compulsoryeducation).American

childrenofdifferentacademicrecordsstudyinthesameclassroom.P366

anschooleducationcanbedividedinto3stages:elementaryeducation(6

years),condaryeducation(highschool---juniorhighandniorhigh6years),and

highereducation.(academic,comprehensive,vocational,technical)

hereducationP368

es:ForaverylongtimeAmericahasledtheworldinhighereducation,at

1825Englandstillhadonly2universities,OxfordandCambridge.

stcollegeinAmerica,Harvardcollege,

wastupinMassachuttsin1636.16yearsafterthePilgrimFathersarrivedat

lwell-knowncollegesincludingYaleCollegein

42

Connecticut,hem,themostprestigiousofallaretheIvy

Leagueschools.P368

onofhighereducation:teaching,rearchandpublicrvice:Theirlibraries

areopentoallAmericanwhohavetherighttoborrowbooksfromanyuniversity

libraryfreely.

IIRadio,TelevisionandthePressP384

IIISociallifeP374

国名：美利坚合众国（TheUnitedStatesofAmerica）。

面积：9372614平方公里（本土面积）。

人口：2.703亿（1998年底）。其中白人占83.4%，黑人占12.4%，亚洲人占3.3%。

语言：英语、西班牙语（一些少数民族）

宗教：57%的居民信奉基督教新教，28%信奉天主教，2%信奉犹太教，信奉其他宗教的占4%，不

属于任何教派的占9%。（1989）

首都：华盛顿哥伦比亚特区（WashingtonD.C.），人口约60.7万（1990年），其中65.8%是

黑人。

美国位于北美洲南部，东临大西洋，西濒太平洋，北接加拿大，南靠墨西哥及墨西哥湾。全境由

东向西可分为5个地理区：东南部沿岸平原分大西洋沿岸平原和墨西哥沿岸平原两部分。这一地

带海拔在200米以下，多数由河川冲积而成，特别是密西西比河三角洲，是世界上最大的三角洲，

土质油黑，土壤肥沃。河口附近有一些沼泽地。位于这一地理区的佛罗里达半岛是美国最大的半

岛

美国的官方语言是英语。但由于地理的阻隔、时间的流逝，美英两国语言已产生了很大的差异，

美国人通常讲话较慢，语调较平缓，整个句子的语调、重音也不同。美国人在讲话时也不过份遵

守语法，例如常把介词省略，或把名词变成动词使用，使整个句子显得简练、随便。此外，在一

些习惯用法、词组甚至词的构成与拼写都与英语不同，这就演变出了具有美国特色的美式英语。

此外，有些地区和民族还使用其它语言，如法语、西班牙语等，印第安人用美洲印第安语。来自

各国移民及其后裔也多使用本民族的语言，这就在美国形成了一块块不同的语言区

43

万圣夜

百科名片

万圣夜

万圣夜（Halloween）（又叫鬼节，万圣节前夜）在每年的10月31日，是英语世界的传统节日，主要

流行于北美、不列颠群岛、澳大利亚、加拿大和新西兰。当晚小孩会穿上化妆服，戴上面具，挨家挨户收

集糖果。华语地区常将万圣夜误称为万圣节。

简介

万圣夜英文称之“Halloween”，为“AllHallowEve”的缩写，是指

万圣节（AllHallow'sDay）的前夜，类似于圣诞夜被称为“Christmas

Eve”。“Hallow”来源于中古英语halwen，与holy词源很接近，在苏格

兰和加拿大的某些区域，万圣节仍然被称为“AllHallowMas”，意思是

在纪念所有的圣人（Hallow）那一天，要举行的弥撒仪式（Mass）。

万圣夜通常与灵异的事物联系起来。欧洲传统上认为万圣节是鬼魂世

界最接近人间的时间，这传说与中国的盂兰节类似。美国明尼苏达州的

Anoka号称是“世界万圣节之都”，每年都举行大型的巡游庆祝。

编辑本段

万圣节的起源

两千多年前，欧洲的天主教会把11月1日定为“天下圣徒之日”(ALL

HALLOWSDAY)。“HALLOW”即圣徒之意。传说自公元前五百年，居住在

爱尔兰、苏格

44

杰克南瓜灯刻上趣怪样貌

兰等地的凯尔特人(CELTS)把这节日往前移了一天，即10月31日。他们

认为该日是夏天正式结束的日子，也就是新年伊始，严酷的冬季开始的一

天。那时人们相信，故人的亡魂会在这一天回到故居地在活人身上找寻生

灵，借此再生，而且这是人在死后能获得再生的唯一希望。而活着的人则

惧怕死魂来夺生，于是人们就在这一天熄掉炉火、烛光，让死魂无法找寻

活人，又把自己打扮成妖魔鬼怪把死人之魂灵吓走。之后，他们又会把火

种烛光重新燃起，开始新的一年的生活。传说那时凯尔特人部落还有在10

月31日把活人杀死用以祭奠死人的习俗。

到了公元1世纪，占领了凯尔特部落领地的罗马人也渐渐接受了万圣

节习俗，但从此废止了烧活人祭死人的野蛮做法。罗马人庆祝丰收的节日

与凯尔特人仪式结合，戴着可怕的面具，打扮成动物或鬼怪，则是为了赶

走在他们四周游荡的妖魔。这也就是今天全球大部分人以古灵精怪的打扮，

来庆祝万圣节的由来。时间流逝，万圣节的意义逐渐起了变化，变得积极

快乐起来，喜庆的意味成了主流。死魂找替身返世的说法也渐渐被摒弃和

忘却。到了今天，象征万圣节的形象、图画如巫婆、黑猫等，大都有友善

可爱和滑稽的脸。

罗马皇帝君士坦丁信主后，立基督教为国教，当时的基督教实际已演

变成天主教。君士坦丁下令全国人民都要皈依基督教，结果没有悔改的异

教徒加入了教会，把各样异教作风带进来，包括死节，他们要维持这节日

为生活的一部分。

由于教会无法消除民众的异教风俗，只有把部分风俗圣化，特别是十

月三一日的死节。在第八世纪，罗马教皇定十一月一日为万圣日(All

Saints’Day)，来记念教会史上一切殉道的圣徒。这样，十月卅一日便

是万圣日的前夕。天主教会容许民众在十月卅一日守节，因为十一月一日

是圣日。后来AllSaint’sDay变成AllHallowsDay，而hallows是

“神圣”的意思，十月卅一日便是万圣夜(AllHallowsEvening)。Evening

后来缩减为eve和een，前者是“前夕”的意思，后者是evening的缩写，

意即“夜晚”，便成为今天的Halloween，代表死节是万圣日的前夕。华人

索性把十月三一日称为万圣节，其实该译作“万灵节”。

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象征物

杰克灯是万圣夜最广为人知的象征物。在英国和爱尔兰，当地人原本

在挖空的芜菁中燃点蜡烛造成杰克灯，但移民到美国的人很快便采用南瓜

代替，因为南瓜比较大和容易在上面雕刻图案。不少家庭在南瓜上刻上吓

人的面容，并放在大门口的阶级上，传统上此做法是想吓走恶魔或妖怪。

南瓜灯

南瓜是橘黄色的，所以橘黄色也成了传统的万圣节颜色。用南瓜雕制

南瓜灯也是一个万圣节传统，其历史也可追溯到爱尔兰。传说有一个名叫

杰克的人非常吝啬，因而死后不能进入天堂，而且因为他取笑魔鬼也不能

进入地狱，所以，他只能提着灯笼四处游荡，直到审判日那天。于是，杰

克和南瓜灯便成了被诅咒的游魂的象征。人们为了在万圣节前夜吓走这些

游魂，便用芜菁、甜菜或马铃薯雕刻成可怕的面孔来代表提着灯笼的杰克，

这就是南瓜灯（Jack-o'-lantern）的由来。爱尔兰人迁到美国后，便开始

用南瓜来进行雕刻，因为在美国秋天的时候南瓜比芜菁更充足。现在，如

果在万圣节的晚上人们在窗户上挂上南瓜灯就表明那些穿着万圣节服装的

人可以来敲门捣鬼要糖果。在南瓜灯里，往往人们会将蜡烛或是一些糖果

放进去。

万圣节的活动

不给糖就捣乱

（Trick-or-treat）

万圣夜的主要活动是“不给糖就捣乱”（Trick-or-treating）。小孩

装扮成各种恐怖样子，逐门逐户按响邻居的门铃，大叫:"TrickorTreat!"

（意即不请客就捣乱），主人家（可能同样穿着恐怖服装）便会拿出一些

糖果、巧克力或是小礼物。部分家庭甚至使用声音特效和制烟机器营造恐

怖气氛。小孩一晚取得的糖果往往以袋计算，整袋整袋的搬回家。

“TrickorTreat”游戏起源于爱尔兰。古代的爱尔兰异教徒相信，

在万圣节前夜鬼魂会群集于居家附近，并接受设宴款待。因而，在“宴会”

结束后，村民们就自己扮成鬼魂精灵，游走村外，引导鬼魂离开，避邪免

灾。同时村民们也都会在屋前院后的摆放些水果及其他食品，喂足鬼魂，

使它们不会伤害人类和动物、或者掠夺其他收成。后来这一习俗一直延续

下来，就成了孩子们取笑不慷慨之商家或家庭的“TrickorTreat”游戏。

在苏格兰，小孩要糖果时会说:"Theskyisblue,thegrassisgreen,

maywehaveourHalloween."（天是蓝色，草是绿色，齐来庆祝万圣节前

夜），然后以唱歌跳舞等表演来博得糖果。

而往往当小孩在玩“TrickorTreat”游戏的时候，青少年会去参加

各种各样的派对，例如：化妆舞会等。

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传统的万圣夜服饰包括僵尸、鬼魂、巫婆、恶魔等。典型的服饰时盖

着

万圣夜服饰

一块剪了两个眼孔的布扮鬼。在19世纪的苏格兰和爱尔兰，当时的人认为

万圣节前夜鬼魂会来到人间，故会打扮得与鬼魂一样，让鬼魂把自己当成

同类。近年，万圣节前夜的装扮已不限于恐怖，而可以作任何打扮，如扮

成电视剧或电影明星，以及公众人物，例如政治家。2004年适逢美国总统

选举，乔治·布什和克里成为美国流行的万圣节前夜打扮。而2001年九一

一袭击事件后，消防员、警察等成为小孩的扮演对象。据估计，2004年有

大约215万个美国小孩装扮成蜘蛛侠，是当年最受欢迎的打扮。在美国、

加拿大和墨西哥很普遍。计划于1950年推出，筹款小钱箱通过学校分发予

小孩，让小孩讨糖果时顺通收集捐款。据估计，推出以来已筹得超过1.19

亿美元。

研究机构BIGrearch曾为美国全国零售联盟进行调查，发现53.3%

的顾客会为2005年万圣节前夜购物，平圴消费额38.11美元，较去年高10

美元，以此推算，美国消费者为2005年万圣节支出的金额高达33亿美元