现代语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版

第1章导言

本章要点：

initionandmainbranchesoflinguisticsstudy

语言学的定义和研究范围

antdistinctioninLinguistic

语言学的一些重要区分

initionandthedesignfeaturesoflanguage

语言的定义和识别特征

onoflanguage

语言的功能

本章考点：

语言学考点：

语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言

学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：

语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的

功能

1,Thedefinitionoflinguistics语言的定义：

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage(badonthe

systematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conductedwithreferencetogeneraltheoryof

languagestructure)

peoflinguistics语言学的范围

A：micro-linguistics

Phonetics（语音学）:thestudyofthesoundsudinlinguisticcommunication.

Phonology（音系学）:thestudyofhowsoundsputtogetherandudto

conveymeaningincommunication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式)

Morphology（形态学）:thestudyofthewayinwhichthesymbolsarearranged

andcombinedtoformwords.

Syntax（句法学）:thestudyofrulesinthecombinationofwordstoform

grammaticallypermissiblentencesinlanguage.

Semantics（语义学）:thestudyofmeaning.

Pragmatics（语用学）:thestudyofthemeaninginthecontextoflanguageu.

B：macro-linguistics

Sociolinguistics:thestudyofallsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwith

thesocietyformthecoreofthebranch.

Psycholinguistics:thestudyoflanguageanditsrelationwithpsychology.

Appliedlinguistics:thestudyofapplicationoflanguagetothesolutionof

lyitistheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciples

tolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandcondlanguages.

portantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学中的重要区分

A:DescriptivevsPrescriptive描写式与规定式

Descriptive:ifalinguisticstudyaimstodescribeandanalyzethelanguage

peopleactuallyu.

Prescriptive:ifthelinguisticstudyaimstolaydownrulesfor“correctand

standard”behaviorinusinglanguage,peoplewhatshouldtheysayandwhat

theyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobePrescriptive.

B:SynchronicvsDiachronic共时性和历时性

Synchronic:thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftimeinhistoryisa

synchronicstudy.

Diachronic:thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisa

diachronicstudy.

C:Speechvswriting言语和文学

Thearemajormediaofcommunication.

D:Languevsparole语言与言语(Saussure索緖尔)

Langue:referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbytheallthemembers

ofaspeechcommunity.

Parole:referstotherealizationoflanguageinactualu.

E:Competencevsperformance语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基)

Competence:referstoaur’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofthe

rules.

Performance:referstotheactualuinconcretesituations.

乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：

索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。

E:TraditionalGrammarvsmodernlinguistics传统语法与现代语言学

Saussure的《CourinGeneralLinguistics》标志着现代语言学的开端。

区别：

a:语言学是descriptive,传统的语法是prescriptive.

b:现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。

c:现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。

initionoflanguage语言的定义

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsudforhuman

communication.

ignfeaturesoflanguage语言的识别特征

Thedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagecanbecalleddesignfeatureswhich

distinguishitfromanimallanguagesystem.

A：Arbitrariness任意性

Thereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningandsounds.

B：Productivity能产性

Itmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignals

whytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberof

ntences,includingntencestheyhaveneverheardbefore.

C：Duality二重性

Twolevels:Atthelowerorthebasiclevelisastructureofsounds,whichare

erlevel,thesoundsoflanguagecanberegrouped

andregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning.

D：Displacement移位性

Languagecanbeudtorefertothingswhichareprentornotprent,real

orimaingedmattersinthepast,prentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.

E：Culturaltransmission文化传递

Languageisculturallytransmitted.

F：Interchangeability互换性

Referstomancanbothproduceorreceivethemassages.

onsoflanguage语言的功能

A：mainfunctions

(1)Descriptivefunction(描述):referstoconveyfactualinformation,which

canbestatedordenied,andevenverified.

(2)Expressivefunction(表达):referstoemotiveorattitudinalfunction,

conveyinformationaboutur’sfeelings,preferences,prejudice,andvalues.

(3)Socialfunction(社会):referstointerpersonalfunction,rvesto

establishandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.

Jakobson将语言功能划分六大类：emotive,conative(意动),referential(指向),

poetic(娱乐),phaticcommunication(寒暄),andmatalinguistic(元语言).

B：macrofunctions

(1)Ideational(概念):Itistoorganizethespeaker’sorwriter’xperienceof

therealorimaginaryworld.

(2)Interpersonal(人际):Itistoindicate,establish,ormaintainsocial

relationshipsbetweenpeople.

(3)Textual:Itistoorganizethewrittenorspokentextsinacoherent

manner,andfittheparticularsituationinwhichtheyareud.

注意知识点：

opoeicwords(拟声词)canNOTshowarbitrarynatureoflanguage.

(拟声词并不能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。)

2.聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。

3.语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。

4.语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。

第2章音位学

本章要点：

organs

发音器官

ction,classificationandthecriteriaofdescriptionbetweenconstantsandvowels

辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则

esandallophones

音位和音位变体

ogicalruleanddistinctivefeatures

音系规则和区别特征

lestructure,stressandintonation

音节结构、重音和语调

本章考点：

语音学：

语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语

元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标

音法和宽式标音法。

音系学：

音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定

义；自由变体；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重

音，句子重音）；音高和音调。

本章内容索引：

nicmediumoflanguage

ics语音学

(1)Thedefinitionofphonetics

(2)Threerearchfields

(3)Organsofspeech

(4)Voicelesssounds

(5)Voicedsounds

(6)Orthographicreprentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions

(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

A:Definition

B:ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

C:ClassificationofEnglishvowels

ogy

(1)Relationshipbetweenphonologyandphonetics

(2)Phone,phonme

(3)Allophone

(4)Somerulesinphonology

A:Sequentialrules

B:Assimilationrule

C:Deletionrule

(5)Supra-gmentalfeatures:stress,tone,intonation

A:stress

B:tone

C:intonation

nicmediumoflanguage

ics语音学

(1)Thedefinitionofphonetics

Phonetics:

concernswiththesoundsthatoccurintheworld’languages.

(2)Threerearchfields三大研究领域考点名词解释

A:Articulatoryphonetics发音语音学:thestudyoftheproductionofspeech

sounds.

B:Acousticphonetics声学语音学:thestudyofphysicalproperties(特征)of

speechsounds.

C:Perceptualphonetics感知语音学:referstotheperceptionofspeechsounds.

(3)Organsofspeech

Vocalorgans:lungs,trachea(气管),throat,no,andmouth.

(4)Voicelesssounds清音

Thesoundproducedwithoutcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(声带).

(5)Voicedsounds浊音

Thesoundproducedwithcausingthevibrationofthevocalcords(声带).

(6)Orthographicreprentationsofspeechsounds——broadandnarrowtranscriptions

语音正字表——宽式和严式标音

A:Broadtranscriptions:transcriptionwiththelettersymbolsonly(一般用于词典和

教学)

B:Narrowtranscriptions:transcriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththe

diacritics(变音符号).(语言学家在语言研究中使用)

IPA:InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(国际音标)产生于19世纪末。

(7)ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds语音的分类

A:Definition

a:Consonants:soundsareproducedbyconstrictingthevocaltractatsomeplaces

todivert,impedeorcompletelyshutofftheflowofairintheoralcavity.

b:Vowels:soundsproducedwithoutobstruction,sonoturbulenceoratotal

stoppingoftheairintheoralcavity.

B:ClassificationofEnglishconsonants

a:intermsofthemannersofarticulation(发音方式):

Stops(爆破音):pbtdkg6

Fricatives(摩擦音):/f//v//θ//ð//s//z//ʃ//ʒ/h//r/8

Affricatives(塞擦音):/tʃ//dʒ/

Liquids(清音):/l//r/

Nasals(鼻音):/m,n,η/

Glides(滑音):/wj/

b:intermsofplaceofarticulation(发音部位)

bilabials(双唇音):/pbmw/

labiodentals(唇齿音):/fv/

dentals(齿音):/ð//θ/

alveolars(齿龈音):/tdnlrs/6

palatals(腭音):/jʃʒtʃd/5

velars(软腭音):/kgη/

glottal(喉音):/h/

C:ClassificationofEnglishvowels

a:thepositionofthetoneinmouth:front,central,back,

b:theopennessofthemouth:clodmi-clodmi-openandopen.

c:theshapeofthelips:roundedandunrounded

d:thelengthofthevowels:tenandlaxorlongandshort

ogy

(1)Relationshipbetweenphonologyandphonetics

Similarity:Bothconcernedwiththespeechsounds.

Differences:ApproachandFocus.

Phonetics:generalnature,itisinterestedinallhumanlanguages.

Phonology:howspeechsoundsformpatternsandhowsoundsconvey

meanings.

(2)Phone,Phoneme考点

Phone:Itisabasicunitofphoneticstudy,aminimalsoundgmentthathuman

snotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.

Phoneme:abstractcollectionof

phoneticfeatureswhichcandistinguishmeaning.

(3)Allophone:Thedifferentrealizationsofthesamephonemeindifferentphonetic

environmentarecalledallophones.（同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现

方式被称为音位的音位变体）

（1）complementarydistribution:whentwoormoreallophonesofthesame

phonemedonotdistinguishmeaningandoccurindifferentphoneticenvironments,then

theallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.(当同一个音位的两个或两个

以上的音位变体不区别意义，并且出现在不同的语音环境中，那么他们被称作处于互补分布)

（2）Freevariation:如果两个音素出现在同一个相同的语音环境中，并不区

别意义，即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不同读音。那么

这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。

（3）Phonemiccontrast:语音相似的音如果是区别性音位，那么可以说他们

形成了一个音位对立。如“k”和“g”在cut和gut是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同

一位置上的一个音外，其余的音都一样，因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体minimalpairs。

音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如mate和late，每一个

单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。

最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相

同。比如pate和bate中的[p]和[b]，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一

样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。

相反，[m]和[p]就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音、都是唇音，

但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。

(4)Somerulesinphonology音位学的一些规则

A:thequentialrules

Therearerulestogovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage,and

therulesarecalledquentialrules.某一特定语言的语言模式是受规则支配的，

这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以L开头，那后面接的必须是元音。

B:theassimilationrule同化规则

同化指一个音具有了临近音的一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，包括鼻化，齿化，鄂

化。同化规则通过“拷贝”序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，从而使两个音相似。

相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，

这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化，作为语言的规则。例如：[I:]在beangreenteam单词中，

[I:]会被鼻音化。

C:deletionrule省略规则

省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，虽然这个音在正字法上是仍有体现。例如：

g在单词sign，design中是不发音的，但在完整的signature和designation中的g是发音

的。

(5).supra-gmentalfeatures:stress,toneandintonation超切分特征：重音，音调，

语调

A:单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。'digestn.摘要di'gestv.消化

Stressreferstothedegreeofforceudinproducingasyllable.

B:音调是由声带vocalcord的不同震动引起的。

C:语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。

注意点：

ismorebasicthanwriting的原因：

A:linguisticevolution’view,speechispriortowriting.

B:ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwriting(amountof

informationconveyed)

C:nativespeakersacquiretheirmothertonguebyspeech.

D:spokenlanguagerevealmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeech.

与phoneme区别

Aphoneisphoneticunitorgment,thespeechsoundwehearandproduceduring

linguisticcommunicationareallphones.

Aphonemeisnotaparticularsound,whichisreprentedorrealizedbyacertain

phoneinacertainphoneticcontext.

Allophones:clearlanddarklareallophonesofthephonemel.

alvowels基本元音英国音位学家DanielJones

Chapter5Semantics

tion

1.命名论Thenamingtheory

ingtothistheory,the

linguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsudinalanguagearetakentobe

labelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.(缺

点：仅限于名词)

2.意念论TheconceptualistviewOgdenandRichards

Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;

rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationof

conceptsinthemind.

3.语境论Conceptualism

It’sbadonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningto

etwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguistic

context.

4.行为主义论Behaviorism

Itreferstotheattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthe”situationin

whichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponitcallsforthinthehearer”.Thistheory

somewhatclotoconceptualismemphasizesonthepsychologicalrespon.

lmeaning:

Sen:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform;itisthecollectionof

allfeaturesoflinguisticform;itisabstractandde-contextualized.

Reference:itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,s

withtherelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldof

experience.

nrelations

1.同义词Synonymy

Itreferstothesamenessorclosimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsareclo

inmeaningarecalledsynonyms.

(1)Dialectalsynonyms—synonymsudindifferentregionaldialects（方言）

BritishAmerica

Autumfall

Flatapartment

(2)Stylisticsynonyms---Synonymsdifferinginstyle（文体）

Oldmandaddyfathermaleparent

(3)Synonymsthatdifferentintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning（情感）

CollaboratorVSAccomplice

(4)Collocationalsynonyms（搭配）

AccuVSCharge（accu…of;charge…with）

RottentomatoesVSAddledeggs

(5)Semanticallydifferentsynonyms（语义）

AmazeVSAstound

2.多义词Polymy

Itreferstodifferentwordsmayhavethesameorsimilarmeaning,thesameoneword

mayhavemorethanonemeaning.

Ball:1,formalsocialeventatwhichpeople

dance.

3.同音(形)异义Homonymy

Itreferstothephenomenonthatwordshavedifferentmeaningshavethesameform,i.e,

differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.

ones同音异义

/reign.

aphs同形异义

./tearn.

tehomonyms同形同音

./tearn.

6.上下义关系Hyponymy

Itreferstothenrelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamore

dwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthe

morespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.

Superordinate:animal

Subordinate:cat,dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,

7.反义词Antonymy

It’sthetermudforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.

a)gradable:等级反义词old-young

b)complementary：互补反义词male-female

c)relational:关系father-sonbuy-ll

cenrelations:

onymouswithY（同义）

achelorallhislife.

Henevermarriedallhislife.

onsistentwithY（不一致）

married

Johnisabachelor.

lsY（附属）

eentoFrance.

HehasbeentoEurope.

ppoY（Y是X的先决条件）

’sbikeneedsreparing.

Johnhasabike.

ntradiction（X是一个矛盾句）

rriedsisterismarriedtoabachelor.

anticallyanomalous.（语义异常）

lehasbadintensions.

isofmeaning

entialAnalysis成分分析法----分析词汇抽象意义

It’

approachisbaduponthebeliefthatmeaningofawordcanbedisctedintomeaning

components,calledmanticfeatures.

=Adult+Male+Animate+Human

ationAnalysis述谓结构分析(由提出)

It’ationisusuallyconsidered

animportantcommoncategorysharedbypropositions,questions,commandct.(通过

对论元argument和谓语predicate的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种.)

3.先设前提Presupposition

It’pposB.

4.蕴涵Entailment

EntailmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtowntencesinwhichntenceA

entailsntenceB.

A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.

B:Markmarriedablonde.

第6章pragmatics

本章要点：

acttheory

言语行为的理论

ativeprincipleanditsmaxins

合作原则及其准则

ntheoryofconventionalimplicature

格莱斯会话含义理论

本章考点：

语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行事行

为和取效行为）；合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：

1．Pragmatics

Definition

Pragmatics&mantics

Context

Sentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning

2．Speechacttheory

Austin’smodelofspeechacts

Searl’sclassificationofspeechacts

Indirectspeechacts

3．Principleofconversion

Cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins

Violationofthemaxins

4．Conversationalimplicature

Definition

Characteristicsofconversationalimplicative

Calculability

Cancellability

Non-detachability

Non-conventionality

5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure

1．Pragmatics

Definition

Itisthestudyofspeakersofalanguageuntencestoeffectsuccessful

communication.

Pragmatics&mantics

Ifthecontextwastakenintothestudyofmeaning,thenthestudycallspragmatics.

Context

A:Definition:

Itisgenerallyconsideredastheknowledgethatsharedbythespeakerand

hearer.

B:Significance:

Itdeterminesthespeaker’suoflanguageandthehearer’sinterpretationof

ntext,thecommunicationwouldachievesatisfactoryresult.

SentencemeaningvsUtterancemeaning句子意义和话语意义

Sentencemeaning:abstractandde-contextualized.

Utterancemeaning:concreteandcontextdependent,andbadon

ntencemeaning.

2．Speechacttheory

Austin’smodelofspeechacts

A:Anlocutionaryact(言内行为)：anactofutteringwords,phras,claus.

Literalmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.

B:Anillocutionaryact(言外行为)：anactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention.

C:Anperlocutionaryact(言后行为)：anactofperformedbyorresultingfrom

sayingsomething;theconquenceorchangebroughtaboutbytheutterance;

Searl’s(瑟尔)classificationofspeechacts

A:Reprentatives(阐述类):statingordescribing,sayingsomethingwhatthe

speakerbelievestobetrue.陈述，相信，发誓Eg:IswearIhaveneverentheman

before.

B:directives(指令类)：Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.

advi，ask，beech，command，demand，order，request，tell，urge。

Eg：openthedoor!

C:Commissives(承诺类)：committingthespeakerhimlftosomefuturecour

ofaction.

commit，connt，guarantee，offer，pledge，promi，refu，threaten。

Eg：Ipromitocome!

D:Expressives(表达类)：expressingthefeelingorattitudetowardsanexisting

ize，boast，congratulate，deplore，regret，thank，welcome

Eg：IamsorryforthemessIhavemade.

E:Declarations(宣告类)：bringaboutimmediatechangebysayingsomething.

appoint，bless，christen，declare，name，nominate，resign

Eg:Ifireyou.

Indirectspeechacts(developedbySearl)

Twospeechacts:

Theprimary:speaker’sgoalofcommunication

Thecond:meansbywhichheachieveshisgoal.

3．Principleofconversion

Cooperativeprincipleanditsmaxins(PaulGrice)

A:themaximofquantity量的准则:(youarewhatyousay)

Makeyourcontributioninformativeasrequired,notmoreinformativethan

required.

B:themaximofquality质的准则:Tautologies(意思重复)

Donotsaysomethingyoubelieveisfal,orsomethingislakeofevidence.

C:themaximofrelation关系准则:

Berelevant.

D:themaximofmanner方式准则:

Avoidobscurity,ambiguity,bebriefandorderly.

Violationofthemaxims

通过实例分析违反准则。

4．Conversationalimplicature

Definition

Characteristicsofconversationalimplicative

Cancellability/defeasibility

tureallowsthespeaker

toimplysomethingandthendenythatimplicature.

A:Let'shaveadrink.

B:It'snotoneo'clockyet.(implyingwecandrinkafteroneo'clock)

A:Ididn'tsaythatyoucoulddrinkafteroneo'hatyoucouldn'tdrink

before.(theimplicaturedisappears)

Non-detachability

Thismeansthatanimplicatureisattachedtothemanticcontentofwhatissaid,

oreimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromanutterance

simplybychangingthewordsforsynonymsorinotherwordsbyrelexicalization

orreformulation.

Forexample,ifeveryoneknowsthatBobisanidiot,saying"Bobisagenius"to

conveytheoppositemeaning"Bobisterriblyfoolish,hecanchooanyofthe

followingsynonymouxpressionstomaintainthesameimplicature:

a)Bobisamentalprodigy.

b)Bobisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.

c)Bobisanenormousintellect.

d)Bobisabigbrain.

Calculability/derivability

Thismeansthatanimplicatureiscalculable,thatistosay,itcanbeworkedoutfrom

theliteralmeaningorthenoftheutteranceontheonehand,andthe

CooperativePrincipleanditsmaximsontheotherhand.

Non-conventionality

Thisistosaythatconversationalimplicaturesarenotconventional,thatis,notpart

oftheconventionalmeaningoflinguisticexpressions.

Butweshouldnoticethatwhatbeginsasaconversationalimplicaturemaybecome

mple:

"Gotothebathroom"originallymeantGoingtoWCasaneuphemism,butnow

'thavetoderivetheimplicaturebytheCPbut

byconvention.

5．Cross-culturalpragmaticsfailure

第7章languagechanges语言变化

本章要点：

1．Phonologicalchange音系变化

2．Morphologicalandsyntacticchange形态和句法变化

3．Lexicalandmanticchange词汇和语义变化

本章考点：

新词的增加：创新词，缩略词，紧缩词，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法；词义的变化：词义

扩大，缩小，意义的转换。

tionofhistoricallinguistics历史语言学的定义

ernedwiththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguage

changesthatoccurredoverthetime.

ogicalchange

ssibletoearegularpatternof

pronunciationchangesthroughoutthehistoryofEnglishlanguage.

logicalandsyntacticchange

Additionofaffixes词汇的增加

uffix–mentinFrench.

Lostofaffixes

Someaffixesfadeoutofufornoapparentreasons.

Changesforwordorder

Camarkinglost,subject-object-verbfixed.

Changeinnegationrule

heenot.

>Idonotlovethee.

4lexicalandmanticchange

(1)Additionofnewwords新词的增加

A:coinage/invention

:walkman,Kodak,Ford

B:clippedwords

Clippingreferstotheabbreviationoflongerwordsorphra.

Eggym-gymnasium

Expo-exposition

Memo-memorandum

Disco-discotheque

C:blending

Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords.

Egsmog=smoke+fog

Motel

Brunch=breakfast+lunch

D:Acronyms

OA

E:Back-formation

toautomate自动化←automation

tolegislate立法←legislation

F:Functionalshift

-verblove

G：Borrowing借词法

(2)Lossofwords词汇的废弃

Egbeem–tobesuitable

Wot–toknow

Gyve–afetter

(3)changeinthemeaningofwords

Semanticbroadening词义扩大

Holiday原形是holyday神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。

Semanticnarrowing词义的缩小

Hound曾经用来指Dog的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。

Semanticshift词义转换

Inn原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。

5Somerecenttrends

A:movingtogreaterinformality.

Ain’tcan’tdidn’t出现在文章中。

B:theinfluenceofAmericanEnglish

随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对世界文化造成很大的影

响。

C:theinfluenceoftechnologyandscience

新的技术科技的发展创造出新的词汇和表达

D:Spacetravel

Spacesuit,heat-shieldsplash-down

E:computerandinternetlanguage

Programinputoutput

F:Ecology生态学

环境保护和资源保护。

6causoflanguagechange语言变化的原因

经济政治文化发展。

第8章sociolinguistics

1thescopeofsociolinguistics

Thedefinitionofsociolinguistics定义

Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,

betweentheusoflanguageandsocialstructuresinwhichtheursoflanguagelive.

Therelatednessbetweenthelanguageandsociety相关性

Themainfunctionoflanguageiscommunication,butitalsoutoestablishand

maintainsocialrelationship.

Ursofthesamelanguagemayspeakdifferentlybecautheirdifferentsocial

background.

Speechcommunityandspeechvariety言语团体与言语变体

Speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatsingledoutforanyspecialstudy.

Speechvariety:anydistinguishableformoflanguageudbyaspeakeroragroupof

featurescanbefoundatthelexical,thephonological,morphological,or

thesyntacticallevelofthelanguage.

Twoapproachestosociolinguisticsstudies

Macro-sociolinguisticsorthesociologyoflanguage:宏观社会语言学或者语言社会学

Viewthesocietyasawholeandconsiderhowlanguagefunctionsinitandhowit

reflectthesocialdifferentiations.

Micro-sociolinguisticsorsociolinguisticsproper:微观社会语言学或严格意义的社会

语言学：

Lookatthesocietyfromthepointofviewofanindividualmemberwithinit.

2varietiesoflanguage

Dialectalvarieties

Regionaldialect

Definition:referstothelanguageudbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion.

Features:

(1)Regionaldialectboundariesareoftencoincidingwithgeographical

boundaries.

(2)Inmostcas,theregionaldialectintwoneighboringareaaremutually

intelligibletoagreatextent,andthechangefromonedialecttoanotherisgradual.

(3)Reasons:Thegeographicbarriers;loyaltytotheone’snativespeech;physicaland

psychologicalresistancetothechange.

Sociolect

(1)Definition:social-classdialectreferstothecharacteristicsofaparticularsocial

class.

(2)Features:twopeoplefromthesamegeographicmayspeakdifferentlybecauof

theirsocialfactors,suchasbackgroundinfluencewhichinfluencelinguisticform.

(3):Ascentisanimportantmakerofsociolect.

Languageandgender(标准，语调，词汇，礼貌)

a)Thelanguageofwomanismorestandardthanthatofman.

b)Womanhaswiderrangeofintonation.

c)Womantendtouadjectivesofevaluation

d)Womantendstobemorepolitethanman.

Languageandage(词汇差异)

A)thelanguageudbytheoldgenerationandtheyoungergenerationisdifferent,

especiallyinthelexicallevel.

Idiolect(个人语言)

Referstopersonaldialectthatwasdecidedbyhissocialbackground,gender,age

andsoon.

Ethnicdialect

Itisusuallyudbytheunderprivilegedpopulationthathaxperiencedsomeformof

racialdiscriminationandgregation.

FeaturesofblackEnglish(非中产阶级，辅音的简化，be动词的省略)

udbythenon-middle-classBlacks

plificationoftheconsonantclusters.(语音上)

onof“be”（句法上）

ofdoublenegationstructure：hedon’tknownothing.

Register语域

选择与情景类型相适应的语言类型就是语域

Thetypeoflanguagelectedthatisappropriatetothesituationisaregister.

a)field语场：rationofthelanguageactivity

b)Tenor语旨：referstotherelationshipinthesituationinquestion.

c)Mode语式：referstothemeansofcommunication.

Eg:alectureonbiologyinacollegecouldbeidentifiedas:

Field:scientific(biology)

Tenor:teacherandstudents(formalandpolite)

Mode:oral(academiclecture)

Degreeofformality

Languageudondifferentoccasionsdiffersindifferentdegreeofformality,whichis

determinedbythesocialvariables.

Intimatecasualconsultativeformalfrozen.

3standarddialect

Definition:thestandardvarietyisparticularlyprestigiousandsuperimpoddialectof

alanguage.通常为政府，媒体，教育行业所使用。

Nature:标准方言是语言变体的一种特殊变体，因为它不与任何特定语言使用者群体都无

关。而是一个语言社团的任何成员都可能使用的变体，无论其社会和地理背景。性别年龄如

何。

Features:lectedvarietyofalanguage,whichudbythenation’spolitical.

4pidginandCreole

Pidgin：

Definition:isalanguagevarietythatmixesdifferentlanguageforthespecialu,like

trading.

Origin:起源于几种不同语言的使用。

特点：词汇有限，语法结构非常简单，没有曲折变化，词性和格的消失。

Creole：克里奥耳语

Definition：当洋泾滨语成为某一特殊团体使用时，就成为了洋泾滨语。

Features:洋泾滨语的结构得以拓展；词汇量被极大的丰富。

5choosingacode

Dislossia双变体语：Asituationwheretwovarietiesofalanguageexitssidebyside

Fergusonin1959

Features:两种语言变体功能的具体化。

Bilingualismandmultilingualism双语现象和多语现象

Bilingualism:asituationwheretwolanguagesareudsidebysidewitheachhavinga

differentroletoplay.例如：加拿大魁北（英语和法语）

Code-switching语码转换

Achangemadebyspeakerorwriterfromonelanguageorlanguagevarietyto

anotherone.

a)thesituationalCode-switching:speakonelanguageinsituationandanotherina

differentone.

6linguistictaboosandeuphemisms

第9章languageandculture

本章要点：

Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture语言和文化的关系

Sapir-whorfhypothesis萨丕尔-沃尔夫的假说

Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences文化差异的语言证据

initionofculture名词解释

广义上：totalwayoflifeofapeople,includingbelief,customs,objects,institutions,

techniques,andlanguagecharacterizethelifeofhumancommunity.

狭义上：referstothespecificpractice,custom,orbeliefs,whichcanbefoundinfolk

culture,orfoodculture.

2.语言和文化之间的关系分析异同点

A：对个人而言：languagepermeateshisthinkingandviewing,italsoexpressand

embodiesitculturalreality

B：对社会而言：languagehelpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguage

reflectsthechangesinculture.

-Whorfhypothesis:languagehelpstoshapeourwaysofthinking,and

conquentlylanguagerevealsouruniquewaysofunderstandingtheworld.

Thestrongversion:(linguisticdetermination):语言决定论

Languagedeterminesourthinkingpatterns.

Theweakversion:(linguisticrelativity):语言相对主义

languages,thegreaterthestructural

differentiationsare,themoredivertheconceptualizationwillbe.

Differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,

theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisknownaslinguisticrelativity

4.文化差异的语言证据：

Anylinguisticsignconsistsofthreelayersofmeaning:

A:denotativemeaning:themeaninggiveninadictionary

B:connotativemeaning：theassociativemeaning

C:iconicmeaning:theimagesoriconinvokedtopeople.

(1)greetingsandtermsofaddress

thereareadozendifferentgreetingsinEnglishforpeopletochoo.

(2):gratitudeandcompliments

例如相对于中国人，西方人tendtoverbalizetheirgratitudeandcomplimentandtendto

acceptthanksandcomplimentsmorefranklyanddirectly.

(3):colourwords:

不同的语言含有不同的与色彩相关的联想。

(4)privacyandtaboos

西方人及其看中隐私，像年龄，家庭背景，薪水等。

(5)roundingoffnumbers:数字处理

西方人不喜欢数字13

(6)Wordsandcultural-specificconnotations

Semanticdeffernce:

A:一门语言中的语言术语在另一门语言中可能找不到想对应的counterpart。

(7)与文化相关的idioms,proverbsandmetaphors.

Luckydog:aluckyperson

(8)Culturecontact,cultureoverlapandculturediffusion.文化接触，重叠，渗透

传统意义上，文化有三种接触：聚集，同化和融入

接触:AccumulationAssimilation,Amalgamation.

重叠:由于自然环境和人类心理的相似性，出现文化重叠。

渗透:通过文化交际，两种文化之间会相互渗透。

5.文化教学与学习的意义：

当我们学习语言时，我们不应该只模仿发音，学习语法，词汇，和习语。

还应该学习他们的“languageofthemind”语言思维。

6：interculturalcommunication.跨文化交际

常指来自不同文化的人之间的交际，暗含了文化之间的比较。

第10章languageacquisition

本章要点：

儿童语言习得的理论

儿童语言发展中的认知因素

语言环境和临界期假说

儿童语言发展的阶段

非典型发展

languageacquisition：referstothechild’sacquisitionofhismothertongue.

1.儿童语言习得的三个理论：

Abehavioristviewoflanguageacquisition:行为主义

定义：Languagelearningissimplyanimitationandhabitformation.

Imitationandpracticearepreliminary,discriminationandgenerationsarekeyto

languagedevelopment.

意义：mplexgrammatical

structuresofthelanguagerequireadifferentexplanation.

Aninnatistviewoflanguageacquisition语法先天主义者

NoamChomskyclaimsthathumanbeingsarebiologicallyprogrammedfor

language.后来定义为LADlanguageacquisitiondevice将这种内在的天赋称之为UG

universalgrammar.

Maincontent:主要观点：

儿童并不能通过试用和错误（试误式学习）发现反身代词的规则，相反，儿童对于这些语法

规则的习得是受内在UG指导的。不同的语言有不同的反身代词的规则，而且通过接触有

限的例子，儿童似乎就能“指导”这些规则。

Cd,

children’sacquisitionoftherulesisguidedbytheinnateUG.

ldrenemtobeableto

“know”therulesbybeingexposingtoalimitednumberofexamples.

Aninteractionistviewoflanguageacquisition互动主义语言习得观

Asaresultofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthecharacteristicofchildrenandthe

edlanguagewhichissuitableforchild’s

abilityiscrucialinhislanguageacquisition.

Cognitivefactorsinchildrenlanguageacquisition

儿童语言发展中的认知因素：

认知因素和语言习得在两种方式上相关：

1，languagedevelopmentisdependentonboththeconcepttheyformaboutthe

worldandwhattheyfeelstimulatedtocommunicateattheearlyandlaterstages

oflanguagedevelopment.

对周围世界形成的概念；所感到的刺激他们进行交际的事物。

2，Thecognitivefactordetermineshowchildrenmakenofthelinguisticsystem

insteadofthemeaningthechildrenperceiveandexpress.弄清语言系统；而不是

所感受到的表达和意义。

语言环境和临界期假说考点：名词解释

Languageenvironmentandcriticalperiodhypothesis

1．Definition：Eric·Lenneberg

LADworkssuccessfullyonlywhenitisstimulatedattherighttime—aspecificand

limitedperiodtimeforlanguageacquisition,whichreferstoastheCriticalPeriod

HypothesisCPH

Content:

Thestrongversion:acquiretheirfirstlanguagebythepuberty,ortheywillneverbe

abletolearnfromthesubquentexposure.

Theweakversion:languagelearningwillbemoredifficultandincompleteafter

puberty.

儿童语言发展的阶段：

Stagesinchildlanguagedevelopment

音位发展

Phonologicaldevelopment

儿童天生就具有区别和发音的能力，对声音习得在所有文化和语言中是共通的。

Childisbornwiththeabilitytodiscriminateandproducesounds,andtheacquisition

ofsoundsisuniversal.

词汇发展

Vocabularydevelopment

Thevocabularydevelopmentisconnectedwiththechild’nvironment.

语法发展

Grammaticaldevelopment

Childrenincreatheirabilitytocarryout“transformation”ofthebasicntence

structuretoproducemorecomplexutterance.

语用发展

Pragmaticdevelopment

Childrenlearnhowtospeaktoothersinaappropriatemanner.

非典型发展考点：类别

Atypicaldevelopment

gimpairment听力受损

retardation思维障碍

臆想症

ring口吃

a失语症

ia失读症书写困难症

第十一章condlanguageacquisition

考点：

第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系；错误分析；中介语；本族语在第二语言习得

中的作用；二语习得的模式和输入假说；个体差异

第二语言习得定义(二十世纪七十年代确立)

SLA:SecondLanguageAcquisition

1.第一语言习得与第二语言习得之间的联系：

Connection:thefirstlanguagervedasabackclothforperceivingand

understandingnewfactsaboutcondlanguagelearning.

Difference:condlanguagelearnersgenerallyfailtoattainthenative-like

guagetheyproducecallsinterlanguage,whichtendstobe

fossilizedandstabilizedatacertainlevel.

siveanalysis对比分析

Startingwithdescribingcomparablefeaturesbetweentwolanguages(suchasten,

wordxpression).Contrastiveanalysiscomparesformsandmeaningbetweentwo

languagestospotmismatchesanddifferences.

nalysis:错误分析gavelessconsiderationtolearners’nativelanguage.

（1）tellsteacherswhatneedstobetaught

（2）tellrearcherhowthelearningproceeds

（3）aremeanshowlearnerstesttheirhypothesaboutlanguagetobelearnt.

A:interlingualerrors：resultsfromthecross-linguisticinterferenceatdifferentlevels,

suchasphonological,lexical,grammatical.

B:intralingualerrors:resultsfromthefaultyorpartiallearningofthetargetlanguage,

whichisindependentofthenativelanguage.

（1）overgeneralization:theuofpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewsituation.

（2）cross-association:somewordssimilarinmeaning,spelling,and

pronunciation,whichleadstoconfusion,thisaspectcallsinternalinterference.

anguage中介语

learners’independentsystemofthelanguagewhichisofneithernativelanguage

scontinuumorapproximation.

Features:

(1)systematicity

(2)permeability

(3)fossilization

5.本族语在第二语言习得中的作用

1语言迁徙的定义：languagetransfer

将本族语的表层形式搬到第二语言的语境中，例如“接触社会”翻译为：totouchthesocity.

2.决定第二语言习得的语言迁徙中的因素：

a)alearner’spsychology,howaleanerorganizehisorhernativelanguage.

b)perceptionofthenative-targetlanguage

c)learners’actualknowledgeofthetargetlanguage.

3.本族语的影响：

a)influencereflexesatphonological,lexical,mantic,syntacticallevel.

b)reflectunderlyingprinciplesoflanguagesatcognitivelevel.

c)avoidanceofcertaintargetlanguagestructure,differentlearningrate.

6.第二语言习得模式和输入假说

1.模式：towhatextentcondlanguageacquisitionisafunctionofinnateness.

在很大程度上，第二语言习得是一个内在功能。

2.克拉申输入假说：Krashen’sinputhypothes

ngandacquisition.

Acquisition:itisasubconsciousprocessofwithoutlearningofgrammaticalrules.

Learning:consciouslearningofthecondlanguageknowledgebylearningtherules.

Accordingto“i+1”hypothesis(inputhypothesis),thecurrentleveloflearner‟slanguagec

ompetenceis„i”,thelanguageinputprovidedbytheteachershouldbe„i+1”.Thusstuden

t‟scurrentlevelisthebasisonwhichteacherdecideswhatlanguagedataandmaterialt

oprovide.

3.第二语言习得的动机motivation：

a)instrumentalmotivation:工具性动机：为了passingtheexams,financialrewards.

b)integrativemotivation:综合性动机：

c)resultativemotivation:外部目的external

d)intrisincmotivation:内部动机：为了enjoymentandpleasure

动机的特点：

所有动机都能促进学习，动机时消时涨。学习的进步反过来促进语言学习动机。

4.学习策略：

Conscious，goal-orientedandproblem-solvingbadeffortstoachievelearning

effiency.

5.习得年龄：ageofacquisition

Theyoungerlearnersoutperformtheadults.

ality:

健谈，自信，自尊

languageacquisitionanditspedagogical

第二语言习得及其教学启示

第12章语言和大脑

本章考点：

神经语言学；心理语言学；失语症

Neurolinguistics神经语言学考点：名词解释

dyoftherelationshipbetweenthebrainandlanguage.

1)howbraininfluencethelanguagelearning

2)howandwhichpartofthebrainlanguageisstored

3)howdamagethebrainaffectstheabilitytouthelanguage

uctureandfunctionofthehumanbrain

人脑结构和功能

只有在人脑的皮层中才能找到语言的表征和处理的秘密。

3.研究大脑的方法和挠功能侧化的证据：

1）尸体解剖研究

2）研究大脑的方法

观察证明大脑的左半球负责语言，且左半球存在特定的语言区域。

3）考查与大脑相关的行为的方法

a:双耳分听

b:裂脑实验

a失语症考点：名词解释

Referstoanumberofacquiredlanguagedisordersduetothecerebrallesions

caudbyaccident,atumorandsoon.

习得性语言紊乱

1）Broca’saphasia卜罗卡失语症非流利性失语症

音位上：veryhaltingandlackofnormalntenceintonation

句法上：producetelegraphicspeech

2)Wernicke’saphasia威尼克失语症流利性失语症

Speakfluentlywithnormalintonationandpronunciationwithlittlemanticmeaning.

对比：考点

1）inthecaofnon-fluentaphasia,theformiscompromidbutthecontentremains

relativelyintact.

2)inthecaoffluentaphasia,itisspokenfluentlywithlittlecontent.

3)Acquireddyslexia习得性失语症

定义

类别：

音位失读症

表层失读症

psycholinguistics心理语言学

1.定义：考点：名词解释

ernswiththeprocessofcomprehension

uisition。

2.心理语言学的研究方法：

1）实地调查

2）实验方法：

词汇确定法

启动实验

限时阅读试验

眼动实验：集中在实义动词

事件相关电位试验

3.语言学和语言处理

1）语音学和音位学

2）形态处理：

等级限制

等级结构

3）句法：

花园小径句

句子歧义

4心理语言学的模式：

Levelt’smodelofspeechproduction:

概念化形成，发音，自我控制