end of the line

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Introductorypoeticterms

Sounddevices

Alliteration，Assonance,Consonance,Onomatopoeia,Rhyme,Rhymescheme

Meter

BalladMeter,Iambicpentameter

Form

Stanza,Couplet,Quatrain,FreeVer,Sonnet,Ballad

Meaningdevices

Imagery,Metaphor,Simile,Personification,Pun,Allusion,Paradox,Symbol,Apostrophe

TwoLinguisticDevices

Inversion,Parallelism

Sounddevices

Allsounddevicesareinterestingbecautheybringstogetherwordsthatsoundalikebutdonot

"FireandIce"thetwowordsinthetitleareoppositein

meaningbuthavethesamevowelsound(assonance).Thepoem,whichattimessuggeststhatthetwoare

thesameinamuchasbothcan"end"theworld,wouldbemuchlesffectiveifthewordslackedthis

whypoetryissodifficulttotranslate.

Alliteration:repetitionoftheinitialsounds(usuallyconsonants)ofstresdsyllablesinnearbywordsor

lines,usuallyatwordbeginnings.

FromLordTennyson's"Break,Break,Break":

Andthestatelyshipsgoon

Totheirhavenunderthehill.

FromLordByron's"SheWalksinBeauty":

Shewalksinbeauty,likethenight

Ofcloudlessclimesandstarryskies;

Assonance:therelativelyclosuccessionofthesameorsimilarvowelsounds,butwithdifferent

consonants:akindofvowelrhyme.

FromWilliamCarolWilliams'"TheRedWheelbarrow"

glazedwithrain

water

besidethewhite

chickens

Consonance:therelativelyclosuccessionofthesameendconsonantswithdifferentvowelsounds:a

kindofconsonantrhyme.

Noticeallthe"r"soundsinthelastsixlinesof"HylaBrook":

Itsbedisleftafadedpapersheet

Ofdeadleavesstucktogetherbytheheat-

Abrooktononebutwhorememberlong.

Thisasitwillbeenisotherfar

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Thanwithbrookstakenotherwhereinsong.

Welovethethingsweloveforwhattheyare.

Onomatopoeia:anywordwhosoundechoesitsmeaning.

In"TheOvenBird"RobertFrostusthewordloudonomatopoetically.

Thereisasingereveryonehasheard,

Loud,amid-summerandamid-woodbird.

Frostemphasizestheloudnessof"loud"byplacingitaloneatthebeginningofthelineñtheonlylinein

thepoemthatstartswithanaccented(stresd)syllable.(Seeiambicpentameter)

RhymrtFrost's

"FireandIce"firerhymeswithdesire;icewithtwiceandsuffice;llyspeaking,

hymesarecalled"internalrhymes."Sometimes

recallednearorslantrhymes.

Somesaytheworldwillendinfire,

Somesayinice.

FromwhatI'vetastedofdesire

Iholdwiththowhofavorfire.

Butifithadtoperishtwice,

IthinkIknowenoughofhate

Toknowthatfordestructionice

Isalsogreat

Andwouldsuffice.

EmilyDickinsonoftenemploysnearrhymeasinthecondstanzaof"WhenNightisalmostDone."

IneverspokewithGod,

Norvisitedinheaven;

YetcertainamIofthespot

Asifthechartweregiven.

Rhymescheme:Thepatternestablishedbythearrangementofrhymesinastanzaorpoem,generally

describedbyusinglettersofthealphabettodenotetherecurrenceofrhyminglines:

Somesaytheworldwillendinfire,

Somesayinice.

FromwhatI'vetastedofdesire

Iholdwiththowhofavorfire.

Butifithadtoperishtwice,

IthinkIknowenoughofhate

Toknowthatfordestructionice

Isalsogreat

Andwouldsuffice

a

b

a

a

b

c

b

c

b

Meter

Meteristhe"beat"ish,meterwasoriginallymeasuredby"stress"andalineended

he1400'smeterhastendedtobemeasuredby

gthoflinesisdescribedby

thenumberofrepeated"meters"intheline.(1),dimeter(2),trimeter(3),tetrameter(4),pentameter(5),

hexameter(6),heptameter(7)andoctameter(8).ThemostcommonfootinEnglishistheiamb,which

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consistsoftwosyllables,rcommonfootisthetrochee(also

twosyllables,butwiththefirstaccented);somemetricalfeet(dactylandanapest)

willfocusmainlyontheiamb.

Herearesomeiambic(tetrameter)linesfromthebeginningofWilliamWordsworth's"Iwanderedlonely

asacloud":

Iwanderedlonelyasacloud

Thatfloatsonhigho'ervalesandhills,

WhenallatonceIsawacrowd,

Ahost,ofgoldendaffodils,

Besidethelake,beneaththetrees.

Noticethatthenextlinebreakstherhythmicpatternandthisstandsout:

Flutteringanddancinginthebreeze.

Itisasifapictureissuddenlygivenmotion,asifthebreezeblewacrossthepoem.

atefocusonwhetheryoushouldjustcountthe

numberofaccentedsyllables(stress)inlinesalternatingbetweenfourstressandthree,orethe

linesascontainingfourandthreefeet(usuallyiambicortrochaic)meterisalsocalled

hymnmeterandyoushouldbeabletosingaballadtothetuneof"AmazingGrace"or,leslegantly,to

"TheYellowRoofTexas."

Weetheclassicpatternin"SirPatrickSpence."Noticethatalthoughthebasicrhythmisiambic,there

aretrochees(wordslikeDrinkin')thatbeginandendsomeofthelines.

ThekingsitsinDunfermlinetoun,

Drinkin'thebluidredwine

'0whaurwillIgetaskeelyskipper,

Tosailthisshipo'mine?'

Thenupandspakaneldernknicht,

Satattheking'srichtknee,

'SirPatrickSpenceisthebestsailor,

Thateversail'dthea.'

Inthe"literaryballad""LaBelleDamesSansMerci",JohnKeatstendstoshortenthefourthline,butstill

includesthreestress.

Ah,whatcanailthee,knight-at-arms,

Aloneandpalelyloitering;

Thedgeiswither'dfromthelake,

Andnobirdssing.

EmilyDickinsonusthebasiccadenceofballadmeterinmostofherpoems:

There'sacertainSlantoflight,

WinterAfternoons--

Thatoppress,liketheHeft

OfCathedralTunes--

HeavenlyHurt,itgivesus--

Wecanfindnoscar,

Butinternaldifference,

WheretheMeanings,are---

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Iambicpentameter(ealsoblankver)isprobablythemostcommonnon-balladlineinEnglish

poetry.

ThelinesfromRobertFrost's"TheOvenBird"arealmost"perfect"iambicpentameterlines,especially

ifyoupronounce"flowers"and"showers"asmonosyllabicwords.

Hesaysthatleavesareoldandthatforflowers

Mid-summeristospringasonetoten.5

Hesaystheearlypetal-fallispast

Whenpearandcherrybloomwentdowninshowers

Onsunnydaysamomentovercast;

Andcomesthatotherfallwenamethefall.

Hesaysthehighwaydustisoverall.10

Thebirdwouldceaandbeasotherbirds

Butthatheknowsinsingingnottosing.

Thequestionthatheframesinallbutwords

Iswhattomakeofadiminishedthing.

Form

Stanza:thepoeticversionofaparagraph,adivisionofapoemmadebyarrangingthelinesintounits

paratedbyaspace;traditionallypoeticstanzaaresimilarinlengthtooneanotherandsimilarinrhyme

scheme.

Couplet:Twosuccessivelinesofpoetry,usuallyofequallengthandsimilarmeter,withend-wordsthat

rhyme.

InRobertFrost's"HylaBrook"therearenumerouscoupletswithinasinglestanza

Itsbedisleftafadedpapersheet

Ofdeadleavesstucktogetherbytheheató

InAndrewMarvell's"Epitaph"therearethreecoupletsinthefirststanza(asixlinestanzaiscalleda

stet.)

ENOUGH;andleavetheresttoFame!

'Tiestocommendher,buttoname.

Courtshipwhich,living,shedeclined,

Whendead,toofferwereunkind:

Norcanthetruestwit,orfriend,

Withoutdetracting,hercommend.

InArchibaldMacLeish's"ArsPoetica"thecoupletsarenotofequallengthbutareeachstanzas.

Apoemshouldbeequalto:

Nottrue.

Forallthehistoryofgrief

Anemptydoorwayandamapleleaf.

Quatrain:Apoem,unitorstanzaoffourlinesofver,usuallywitharhymeschemeofababoritsvariant,

emostcommonformofstanzainEnglish.

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Gatheryerobudswhileyemay,

OldTimeisstilla-flying;

Andthissameflowerthatsmilestoday

Tomorrowwillbedying.

a

b

a

b

(RobertHerrick)

Break,break,break,

Onthycoldgraystones,OSea!

AndIwouldthatmytonguecouldutter

Thethoughtsthatariinme.

a

b

a

b

(LordTennyson)

Freever:aformofpoetrythatdoesnotcontainrepeatedrhythmsorregularrhyme,butdoesuother

sounddeviceslikeassonance,alliteration,imagery.

Noticehowthe"free"'"Eyesight"areinstanzasofsimilarlength.

don'tworry,saidthemountain,

trythelaternorthernslopes

orif

youcanclimb,climb

intospring:but

saidthemountain

it'snotthatway

withallthings,some

thatgoaregone

InAuden's"MuedeBeauxArts"thereisonlyonestanza,butnoticetheorganizationofthelineswith

theuofvariouskindsofrepetition,bothphoneticallyandrhythmically.(Throughoutthepoemthereis

considerableendrhymeeventhoughthereisvariationinthelengthofthelines;Audenwasapoetofgreat

disciplinesoitisprobablymisguidedtolabelanyofhisveras"free")

TheOldMasters;howwell,theyunderstood

Itshumanposition;howittakesplace

Whilesomeoneeliatingoropeningawindoworjustwalkingdullyalong;

WaltWhitactionof

"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom"thatdescribesthejourneyofLincoln'sfuneraltrain:

Overthebreastofthespring,theland,amidcities,

Amidlanes,andthrougholdwoods,(wherelatelythevioletspeep'dfromtheground,spottingthe

graydebris;)

Amidthegrassinthefieldachsideofthelanesópassingtheendlessgrass;

Passingtheyellow-spear'dwheat,everygrainfromitsshroudinthedark-brownfieldsuprising;

Passingtheapple-treeblowsofwhiteandpinkintheorchards;

Carryingacorptowhereitshallrestinthegrave,

Nightanddayjourneysacoffin.

Thoughthelinesareanexcellentexampleoffreever,noticethatWhitmanprovidesstructurebyusing

picalwithWhitman,the

ntencealsofeaturesinversion.

Blankver:unrhymediambicpentameter,commoninShakespeare'splaysandmanylongerpoems,such

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asJohnMilton'sParadiLost,thebeginningofwhichprovidesafamouxample:

OfMan'sFirstDisobedience,andtheFruit

OfthatForbiddenTree,whomortaltaste

BroughtDeathintotheWorld,andallourwoe,

WithlossofEden,tillonegreaterMan

Restoreus,andregaintheblissfulSeat,

SingHeav'nlyMu...

Ballad:atraditionalandstillpopularformthatisavehiclefornarrative(story)poemswhichwereand

allypasdonorally,theyhavebeenaliteraryformsincethe19thcenturywhen

someoftheRomanticpoetsudtheformfor"oldfashioned"ladistypicallywrittenin

quatrainsofalternatingeightandsixsyllablelinesrhymedabcb(formore,eballadmeter).Inthe

Renaissancetheweresometimesprintedascoupletscalled"fourteeners"becautheyhadfourteen

ionalballadswerestoriesofloveoradventureorboththatalmostalwayndedtragically.

Oneofthemostfamoustraditionalballads,"SirPatrickSpence",begins

ThekingsitsinDunfermlinetoun,

Drinkin'thebluidredwine

'0whaurwillIgetaskeelyskipper,

Tosailthisshipo'mine?'

Thenupandspakaneldernknicht,

Satattheking'srichtknee,

SirPatrickSpenceisthebestsailor,

Thateversail'dthea.'

Ourkinghaswrittenabraidletter,

Andal'ditwi'hishan',

AndntittoSirPatrickSpence,

Waswalkin'onthestran'.

'ToNoroway,toNoroway,

ToNorowayowrethefaim;

Theking'sdochtero'Noroway,

It'sthoumaunbringherhame.'

ThefirstlinethatSirPatrickread,

Saelond,loudlaughedhe;

TheneistlinethatSirPatrickread,

Thetearblindedhi'e.

"Edward"

includedtherefraintothelaststanza;theothersareformedinthesameway).

Itistooredforyouroldgreymare

Myson,nowtelltome

Itisthebloodofmyoldcoondog

Whochadthefoxforme.

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Itistooredforyouroldcoondog

Myson,nowtelltome

ItisthebloodofmybrotherJohn

Whohoedthecornforme.

Whatdidyoufalloutabout?

Myson,nowtelltome

Becauhecutyonhollybush

Whichmighthavebeenatree.

Whatwillyousaywhenyourfathercomesback

Whenhecomeshomefromtown?

I'lltmyfootinyonderboat

Andsailtheoceanround.

Whenwillyoucomeback,myowndearson?

Myson,nowtelltome

Whenthesunittsinyondersycamoretree

Andthatwillneverbe,be,be

SaraTeasdalecapturesthefeelingofatraditionalballadin"TheLook"

TheLook

Stephonkisdmeinthespring,

Robininthefall,

ButColinonlylookedatme

Andneverkisdatall.

Stephon'skisswaslostinjest,

Robin'slostinplay,

ButthekissinColin'yes

Hauntsmenightandday.

Sonnet:Afixedformconsistingoffourteenlinesoffive-footiambicver.

"TheOvenBird"byRobertFrostcouldbeconsideredastanzaalthoughtherhymeschemeisnotone

associatedwithsonnets.

ThemostfamoussonnetwriterinEnglishwasShakespeare,butthesonnetwasalsoapopularforminthe

allyavehicleforlovepoems,ithascomeeventoudindramaticallydifferent

sthe15th.

Aveningfelltheday'soppressionlifted;

Tallpeakscameintofocus;ithadrained:

Acrosswidelawnsandculturedflowersdrifted

Theconversationofthehighlytrained.

Thingardenerswatchedthempassandpricedtheirshoes;

Achauffeurwaited,readinginthedrive,

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Forthemtofinishtheirexchangeofviews:

Itlookedapictureofthewaytolive.

Faroff,nomatterwhatgoodtheyintended,

Twoarmieswaitedforaverbalerror

Withwell-madeimplementsforcausingpain,

Andontheissueoftheircharmdepended

Alandlaidwastewithallitsyoungmenslain,

Itswomenweeping,anditstownsinterror.

Meaningdevices

Imagery:thewordsapoetustoevokeimagesthatthereader"es"(orhears,smells,tastes,touches)

becautheydescribewhatthenscan"n.(Sights,sounds,smells,flavors,texturetc.)

Noticehowinthethirdstanzaof"Break,Break,Break"LordTennysonusthreekindsofimage:

Andthestatelyshipsgoon

Totheirhavenunderthehill;

ButOforthetouchofavanish'dhand,

Andthesoundofavoicethatisstill!

Figuresofspeechsuchassimile,metaphor,personification,

alwayshavebothanarrow,literalmeaning,andabroader,ed,theyaskthe

readertothinkaboutthewordsbeingudinatleasttwoways.

Metaphor:afigureofspeechinwhichawordorphradescribingonethingistransferredtosomething

orscanbelookedatasakindof"condendsimile",acomparisonwithoutthe

uof"like"or"as."InthefollowingexamplefromRobertFrost's"HylaBrook"thebed/sheetmetaphor

describesthebrookasitlookstothepoetwhenithasdriedout.

Itsbedisleftafadedpapersheet

Ofdeadleavesstucktogetherbytheheat.

Partoftheaptnessofthismetaphoristhat"bed"initlfcanhavetwomeanings(streambed-bedto

sleepupon)ondlineiffectivebecaufadedpapersheet(themetaphor),

whichsoundsasifithasaromantic-wistfulpotential,isbroughttoearth.

RobertHerrickin"ToVirgins,MakingMuchofTime"continuesthemetaphoricimageof"timeflying"in

thecondstanzaofthepoem:

Thegloriouslampofheaven,thesun,

Thehigherhe'sa-getting,

Thesoonerwillhisraceberun,

Andnearerhe'stotting.

Callingthesun"Thegloriouslampofheaven"ismetaphoric;noticeHerrick"mixes"hismetaphorwhen

hepredictsthesun's"race"taphorisanexampleofpersonification.

InthecondstanzaofWilliamBlake's"ThePoisonTree"therearemetaphorswithinmetaphors.

AndIwatereditinfears

Nightandmorningwithmytears,

AndIsunneditwithsmiles

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Andwithsoftdeceitfulwiles.

"It"ishis"wrath"(anger)epoemstitleweknowthatthesymbolfor

(andametaphorof)hiswrathis"ThePoisonTree."Wateringwrathin"fears"isametaphor;watering

thetree(alreadyametaphor)with"tears"gwrathboth

extendsthetreemetaphor,andintroducesanewmetaphorsmilesbeforeendingwith"softdeceitfulwiles"

whichparallelsthe"fears"emthatlooksonthesurfacetobealmostchildlikein

itssimplicity,"ThePoisonTree"emstohavemorethanitsshareofintricacies.

SomemodernpoetslikeWilliamCarlosWilliamsemtowanttoethingsastheyaredetached,asit

were,ike"TheRedWheelbarrow"avoidmetaphorandaredistorted

mesaredwheelbarrowisjustaredwheelbarrow.

Simile:afigureofspeechinwhichanexplicitcomparisonismadebetweentwoesntiallyunlikethings,

usuallyusinglike,asorthan:

LordByron's"SheWalksinBeauty"beginswithasimile.

Shewalksinbeauty,likethenight

Ofcloudlessclimesandstarryskies.

AsdoesWilliamWordsworth's"IWanderedLonelyasaCloud":

Iwanderedlonelyasacloud

Thatfloatsonhigho'ervalesandhills.

Notehowthesimilexpandupontheinitialimage.

FromRobertFrost's"HylaBrook":

...theHylabreed

Thatshoutedinthemistamonthago,

Likeghostsofsleigh-bellsinaghostofsnow.

ArchibaldMacLeish's"Arspoetica"beginswithfoursimiles:

Apoemshouldbepalpableandmute

Asaglobedfruit,

Dumb

Asoldmedallionstothethumb,

Silentasthesleeve-wornstone

Ofcamentledgeswherethemosshasgrown--

Apoemshouldbewordless

Astheflightofbirds.

Afterveralmoresimiles,MacLeishendshispoemwithfourcoupletsthatdonotcontainasimile.

Personification:atypeofmetaphorinwhichdistinctivehumancharacteristicsaregiventoananimal,

objectoridea.

FromPhilipLarkin's"Coming":

Onlongerevenings,

Light,shillandyellow,

Bathestherene

Foreheadsofhous

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Pun:apunoccurswhenawordisudinsuchawayastohavemorethanonemeaning;inthiswayitisa

kindof"instantmetaphor."

Inthe"OvenBird",afterdescribingan"earlypetalfall"Frostwrites:

Andcomesthatotherfallwenamethefall.

Thefallofleavesbecomestheasonnamed"thefall."

Allusion:areferencetosomethinglikeaperson,aquotefromafamoussource(inEnglishandAmerican

literatureoftentheBible),orafamousworkofart.

BothWilliamCarlosWilliams'"LandscapewiththeFallofIcarus"'s"MuséesdeBeaux

Arts"makeallusionstoafamouspaintingbyBreughelandtothefallofIcarusdepictedinthepainting.

WilliamBlake's"APoisonTree"emstomakeanallusiontothestoryoftheGardenofEden.

(Anditgrewbothdayandnight,

Tillitboreanapplebright.)

Paradox:astatementthatonthesurfaceemstocontradictitlfanddoesnotmaken,butthatat

anotherlevelexpressatruth..In"TheOvenBird"RobertFrostwrites,

Thebirdwouldceaandbeasotherbirds

Butthatheknowsinsingingnottosing.

"insingingnottosing"isaparadox;thecontradictionisobvious;whatisnotsoobviousiswhatthe

"truth"ostisactuallydoinghereis"describing"thebird'ssongasunsonglike

herpartofthepoem,Frostswritesthe

bird"saysthatleavesareold"andthat"highwaydustisoverall."

WhatcouldArchibaldMacLeishin"ArsPoetica"meanbytheparadoxeswhichbeginhispoemandsay

thatapoemshouldnot"speak"?

Apoemshouldbepalpableandmute

Asaglobedfruit,

Dumb

Asoldmedallionstothethumb,

Silentasthesleeve-wornstone

Ofcamentledgeswherethemosshasgrown--

Apoemshouldbewordless

Astheflightofbirds.

Symbol,animagethatcomestostandforsomething(oftenanidea)hascometo

standforallmenwho"flytooclotothesun"anddonotheedthecautionsoftheirparents.

WhatdoyouthinkthetreeinWilliamBlake's"APoisonTree"symbolizes?

Apostrophe,afig,

LordTennyson's"Break,Break,Break"isaddressingthea:

Break,break,break,

Onthycoldgraystones,OSea!

AndIwouldthatmytonguecouldutter

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Thethoughtsthatariinme.

TwoLinguisticDevices

Inversion,thereordering(inverting)oftheusualwordorderofantence,oftenbyplacingthesubject

aftertheverbasinthelinesofPhilipLarkin'sfrom"Coming":

Onlongerevenings,

Light,stillandyellow,

Bathestherene

Foreheadsofhous

orthebyEmilyDickinsonfrom"IneverSawaMoor"

IneverspokewithGod,

Norvisitedinheaven;

YetcertainamIofthespot

Asifthechartweregiven.

Here,in"ThereisaCertainSlantofLight,Dickinsonplacesthedirectobjectbeforethesubjectandverb:

HeavenlyHurt,itgivesus-

AfamouxampleisthebeginningofMilton'sParadiLost:

OfMan'sFirstDisobedience,andtheFruit

OfthatForbiddenTree,whomortaltaste

BroughtDeathintotheWorld,andallourwoe,

WithlossofEden,tillonegreaterMan

Restoreus,andregaintheblissfulSeat,

SingHeav'nlyMu...

WaltWhitmanendsactionof"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom"with:

Carryingacorptowhereitshallrestinthegrave,

Nightanddayjourneysacoffin.

Butnooneinvertsmorethaneecummingsin"Meupatdoes"

Meupatdoes

outofthefloor

quietlyStare

apoisonedmou

Noticethatafterthereversalof"still"and"who"inthenextlineofthepoem(below),therestofthepoem

isin"normal"wordorder.

stillwhoalive

isaskingWhat

haveidonethat

Youwouldn'thave

Howdoesthejumbledwordorderatthebeginningmaketheendmoreeffective?

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Parallelismisageneraltermthatincludesanumberofspecificdevicesallofwhicharerootedinhaving

differentpartsofantenceorcorrespondingpartsintwontencesmirroreachotherinstructure.

Parallelismisafrequentdeviceinproaswellaspoetry.

Blake's"ThePoisonTree"beginswithastanzawherethethirdlineparallelsthefirst,andthefourth,the

cond.

Iwasangrywithmyfriend:

Itoldmywrath,mywrathdidend.

Iwasangrywithmyfoe:

Itolditnot,mywrathdidgrow.

LordByron's"SheWalksinBeauty"endswithantencethathasveralexamplesofparallelstructure:

Andonthatcheek,ando'erthatbrow,

Sosoft,socalm,yeteloquent,

Thesmilesthatwin,thetintsthatglow,

Buttellofdaysingoodnessspent,

Amindatpeacewithallbelow,

Aheartwholoveisinnocent!

Tennyson's"Break,Break,Break"includestwontencesthatparalleleachotherinstructure.

O,wellforthefisherman'sboy,

Thatheshoutswithhissisteratplay!

O,wellforthesailorlad,

Thathesingsinhisboatonthebay!

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