commonlaw

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Historyofthecommonlaw

Commonlaworiginallydevelopedundertheinquisitorial

systeminEnglandfromjudicialdecisionsthatwerebadin

tradition,custom,rmsoflegal

institutionsandculturebearremblancetothowhich

existedhistoricallyincontinentalEuropeandothersocieties

whereprecedentandcustomhaveattimesplayeda

substantialroleinthelegalprocess,includingGermaniclaw

mofreasoning

udincommonlawisknownascasuistryorca-bad

monlaw,asappliedincivilcas(as

distinctfromcriminalcas),wasdevidasameansof

compensatingsomeoneforwrongfulactsknownastorts,

includingbothintentionaltortsandtortscaudbynegligence,

andasdevelopingthebodyoflawrecognizingandregulating

eofprocedurepractidincommonlaw

courtsisknownastheadversarialsystem;thisisalsoa

developmentofthecommonlaw.

BeforetheinstitutionalstabilityimpodonEnglandbyWilliam

theConquerorin1066,Englishresidents,likethoofmany

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othersocieties,particularlytheGermanicculturesof

continentalEurope,weregovernedbyunwrittenlocalcustoms

thatvariedfromcommunitytocommunityandwereenforcedin

mple,courtsgenerallyconsisted

ofinformalpublicasmbliesthatweighedconflictingclaimsin

acaand,ifunabletoreachadecision,mightrequirean

accudtotestguiltorinnocencebycarryingared-hotiron烧

红的铁块orsnatchingastonefromacauldronofboilingwater

orsomeother"test"ofveracity，(trialbyordeal)神明裁判.Ifthe

defendant'swoundhealedwithinaprescribedperiod规定期限,

hewastfreeasinnocent;ifnot,execution处决usually

followed.

In1154,HenryIIbecamethefirstPlantagenet（金雀花王朝）

anyachievements,Henryinstitutionalized

commonlawbycreatingaunifiedsystemoflaw"common"to

thecountrythroughincorporatingandelevatinglocalcustomto

thenational,endinglocalcontrolandpeculiarities,eliminating

arbitraryremedies,andreinstatingajurysystemofcitizens

swornonoathtoinvestigatereliablecriminalaccusationsand

yreacheditsverdictthroughevaluating

commonlocalknowledge,notnecessarilythroughthe

prentationofevidence，adistinguishingfactorfromtoday's

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civilandcriminalcourtsystems.

HenryII'screationofapowerfulandunifiedcourtsystem,

whichcurbedsomewhatthepowerofcanonical(church)

courts,broughthim(andEngland)intoconflictwiththechurch,

mostfamously,withThomasBecket,theArchbishopof

wereresolvedeventually,atleastforatime,

inHenry'sfavourwhenagroupofhishenchmenmurdered

part,theChurchsooncanonizedBecketasa

saint.

Thus,inEnglishlegalhistory,judicially-developed"common

law"becametheuniformauthoritythroughouttherealm

veralcenturiesbeforeParliamentacquiredthepowerto

makelaws.

Aarlyasthe15thcentury,itbecamethepracticethat

litigantswhofelttheyhadbeencheatedbythecommon-law

mple,they

mightarguethatanawardofdamages(atcommonlaw)was

notsufficientredressforatrespasroccupyingtheirland,and

is

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developedthesystemofequity,administeredbytheLord

Chancellor,rnature,equity

andlawwerefrequentlyinconflictandlitigationwould

frequentlycontinueforyearsasonecourtcountermandedthe

other,eventhoughitwastablishedbythe17thcenturythat

xampleisthefictionalcaof

JarndyceandJarndyceinBleakHou,byCharlesDickens.

InEngland,courtsoflawandequitywerecombinedbythe

JudicatureActsof1873and1875,withequitybeingsupreme

nitedStates,parallelsystemsoflaw

(providingmoneydamages)andequity(fashioningaremedy

tofitthesituation)survivedwellintothe20thcenturyinmost

tedStatesfederalcourtsparatedlaw

andequityuntiltheywerecombinedbytheFederalRulesof

CivilProcedurein1937-thesamejudgescouldheareither

kindofca,butagivencacouldonlypursuecausinlaw

orinequity,whichofcourledtoallkindsofproblemswhena

givencarequiredbothmoneydamagesandinjunctiverelief.

Delawarestillhasparatecourtsoflawandequity,andin

manystatesthereareparatedivisionsforlawandequity

withinonecourt.

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Commonlawlegalsystems

Thecommonlawconstitutesthebasisofthelegalsystemsof:

EnglandandWales,theRepublicofIreland,federallawinthe

UnitedStatesandthestates'laws(exceptLouisiana),federal

lawinCanadaandtheprovinces'laws(exceptQuebeccivil

law),Australia,NewZealand,SouthAfrica,India,SriLanka,

Malaysia,Brunei,Pakistan,Singapore,HongKong,andmany

othergenerallyEnglish-speakingcountriesorCommonwealth

ially,everycountrywhichhasbeencolonid

atsometimebyBritainuscommonlawexceptthothat

hadbeencolonizedbyothernations,suchasQuebec(which

followsFrenchlawtosomeextent)andSouthAfrica(which

followsRomanDutchlaw),wherethepriorcivillawsystem

wasretainedtorespectthecivilrightsofthelocalcolonists.

India'ssystemofcommonlawisalsoamixtureofEnglishlaw

andthelocalHindulaw.

Themainalternativetothecommonlawsystemisthecivillaw

system,whichisudinContinentalEurope,andmostofthe

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merSovietBlocandotherSocialist

countriesudaSocialistlawsystem.

Theoppositionbetweencivillawandcommonlawlegal

systemshasbecomeincreasinglyblurred,withthegrowing

importanceofjurisprudence(almostlikecalawbutinname)

incivillawcountries,andthegrowingimportanceofstatutelaw

andcodesincommonlawcountries(forexample,inmattersof

criminallaw,commerciallaw(theUniformCommercalCodein

theearly1960's)andprocedure(theFederalRulesof

Evidenceinthe1970's)).

Scotlandisoftensaidtouthecivillawsystembutinfactit

hasauniquesystemthatcombinelementsofanuncodified

civillawdatingbacktotheCorpusJurisCiviliswithanelement

ofcommonlawlongpredatingtheTreatyofUnionwith

ommonlawdiffersinthattheuof

precedentsissubjecttothecourtsekingtodiscoverthe

principlewhichjustifiesalawratherthantoarchforan

exampleasaprecedentandthattheprinciplesofnatural

justiceandfairnesshavealwaysformedasourceofScotsLaw.

ComparablepluralisticlegalsystemsoperateinQuebec,

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ystemsarereferredtoas

mixedlegalsystems.

fCaliforniahasasystembadoncommon

law,butithascodifiedthelawinthemannerofthecivillaw

sonfortheenactmentofthecodesin

Californiainthenineteenthcenturywastoreplacea

pre-existingsystembadonSpanishcivillawwithasystem

badoncommonlaw,similartothatinmostotherstates.

CaliforniaandanumberofotherWesternstates,however,

haveretainedtheconceptofcommunitypropertyderivedfrom

iforniacourtshavetreatedportionsofthe

codesasanextensionofthecommon-lawtradition,subjectto

judicialdevelopmentinthesamemannerasjudge-made

commonlaw.(Mostnotably,CabCo.,

13Cal.3d804(1975),theCaliforniaSupremeCourtadopted

theprincipleofcomparativenegligenceinthefaceofa

CaliforniaCivilCodeprovisioncodifyingthetraditional

common-lawdoctrineofcontributorynegligence.)

ThestateofNewYork,whichalsohasacivillawhistoryfrom

itsDutchcolonialdays,alsobeganacodificationofitslawsin

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ypartofthiscodificationprocessthat

wasconsideredcompleteisknownastheFieldCodeapplying

ginalcolonyofNewNetherlandswas

e

Britishcapturedpre-existingcoloniestheycontinuedtoallow

r,theDutch

ttlersrevoltedagainsttheEnglishandthecolonywas

eEnglishfinallyregained

controlofNewNetherlands--asapunishmentuniqueinthe

historyoftheBritishEmpire--theyforcedtheEnglishcommon

lawuponallthecolonists,s

problematicasthepatroonsystemoflandholding,badon

thefeudalsystemandcivillaw,continuedtooperateinthe

influenceofRomanDutchlawcontinuedinthecolonywellinto

ificationofalawofgeneral

obligationsshowshowremnantsofthecivillawtraditionin

NewYorkcontinuedonfromtheDutchdays.