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章节名称ics(Continued)授课时数2

教学目的

1．Tostudythedifferentkindsofmeaning.

2．Toknowhowmeaningisunderstoodfromdifferentapproaches.

ylexicalmeaninganddistinguishnandreference.

clearnrelationsholdingnbetweenwords.

教学重点

Functionalapproachtomeaningandlexicalmeaning

教学难点

Understandingofdifferentkindsofmeaning;differencesbetweennandreference

教法与教具

Explanation,illustrationanddiscussion

作业与思考题

n“Associativemeaning”withexamples.

sthedifferencesbetweennandreference.

n“Synonymy”,“Hyponymy”,and“Homonymy”.

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fmeaning(Meaningsofmenaing)

Withsomanytheoriesandapproaches,weshoulddrawatleasta

tentativehypothesisthatmeaningisvariableandisrealizedatdifferent

,theclassificationofmeaningvarieswiththe

interestofaparticularlinguisticandtheaimhewantstoachieve.

ditionalapproach

Friesprentsatraditionaldistinctionbetween“lexical”and“structural”

merixpresdbytho“meaningful”partsofspeech

suahasnouns,verbs,adjective,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionary

associatedwiththegrammar,thelatterexpressthedistinctionbetweenthe

subjectandobjectofantence,oppositionofdefiniteness,tenand

number,andthedifferencesbetweenstatements,questions,andrequests.

2．Thefunctionalapproach

Followingafunctionalapproach,Leechcategorizesvenkingsof

meaning,fiveofwhicharebroughtundertheassociativemenaing.

(1)Conceptualmeaning:logical,

“denotative”inthat

itisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,

orrefersto.

Associativemeaning

(2)Connotativemeaning:whatiscommunicatedbyvirtueofwhat

h’ssystem,however,asisthecaindaily

conversation,“connotative”referstosomeadditional,especiallyemotive

meaningrelatedwithbeingderogatoryorfavourable.“Politian”and

“statesman”arecas.

(3)Socialmeaning:whatiscommunicatedofthesocialcircumstanceof

languageu,forexample,themeaningof“xy”,or“修养”inChine.

(4)Affectivemeaning:whatiscommunicatedofthefeelingsand

attitudesofthespeaker/writer.

(5)Reflectedmeaning:whatiscommunicatedthroughassociationwith

tedmeaningisusuallycultural.

Taketheword“dog”glishspeakersutheword,they

alwaysassociatethewordwithsomethinggoodofdog,suchas“Loveme,

lovemydog,”or“thetopdog.”ButforChinespeakers,dogusuallyhas

theoppositen.“狗腿子、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、走狗、狗改不了吃

屎”等。

词汇意义和结构意义

（语法意义）：

ball，boy，hits每个

词都有它的词汇意

义，这些意义都可以

在字典里查到，但这

些词汇没有结构意

义。只有当他们按一

定形式排列起来，这

种方式才表现出它们

之间的形式关系时，

才具有语法意义，如，

Theboyhitstheball。

概念意义：被其共同

的“所指”所约定俗

成。

社会意义与语境有关系，

同上下文情景和社会文

化背景有关系。

情感意义指说话者的评

价和态度，有褒、贬、中

立之分。也指口语和书面

语之分。如，老妇可称作

“老太太、老太婆、老不

死”等。

反映意义多半有民族特

点，具有联想色彩。

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(6)Collocativemeaning:whatiscommunicatedthroughassociation

withwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherword.

loudmusic/loudpattern;blacktea/blackcoffee/blackboard

(7)Thematicmeaning:whatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichthe

icmeaningis

determinedbytheorderofwordsinantenceandthedifferentprominence

theyeachreceive.

(Theme和rheme主位和述位是句子的构成成分，相当于主题和述

题topicandcomment。主位是句子的第一成分，说明谈话的题目，从而

成为句子其余部分叙述内容的起点。topic和comment只限于说明从句和

句子的结构，而theme和rheme更多地和信息结构有关。)

gmaticapproach

Thisapproachdrawsadistinctionbetweenntencemeaningand

tencemeaningisdirectlypredictablefromthe

grammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofthentence,whileutterancemeaning

includesallthevarioustypesofmeaningthatarenotdirectlyrelatedtothem.

Johnislikeafish.(ntencemeaning)

Johnswimswell.

Johndrinksalotofwine.(utterancemeaning)

lmeaning

ndreference(意义与［所指］语义)

Senandreferencearetwoformsoftenencounteredinthestudyof

etworelatedbutdifferentaspectsofmeaning.

isthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform;itisabstractanad

easpectofmeaningdictionarycompilersare

mple,theword“dog”isgiventhedefinition“a

domesticatedcanine(犬科)mammal,occurringinmanybreedsthatshowa

greatvarietyinsizeandform.”(CollinsDictionary)Thisdoesnotreferto

anyparticulardogthatexistsintherealworld,butappliestoanyanimals

isthenofthe

world“dog”.

Referencemeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physical

world;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthe

y“Thedogisbarking,”wemust

Sen:说话者（作者）或

听话者（读者）体会到的

词或短语的意义，如［（年

龄在十三岁到十九岁）青

少年］在不同的上下文中

有不同的含义。在关于少

年犯罪的报告中指少年，

在通俗杂志中出现时指

青年。

reference

第2页

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betalkingaboutacertaindogexistentinthesituation;theword“dog”

the

referenceoftheworld“dog”inthisparticularsituation.

Obviously,linguisticformshavingthesamenmayhavedifferent

nehand,therearealsooccations,

whenlinguisticformswiththesamethereferencemightdifferinn.A

verydoogexampleisthetwoexpressions“morningstar”and“evening

star.”Thetwodifferinn,butasamatteroffact,whattheyrefertois

thesame:theverysamestarthatweeinthesky.

*Whenweeadesk,weknowthereissomethingbehindtheconcrete

tsomethingisabstract,whichhas

noexistenceinthematerialworldamdcanonlybendinourmind.

Thisabstractthingisusuallycalledconcept.

desksinourlife,butthatdeskisnotavailable.

LeechalasousSENSEasabriefertermforhisconceptualmeaning.

Sothedistinctionbetween“n”and“reference”iscomparabletothat

between“connotation”and“denotation”.Theformerreferstotheabstract

propertiesofanentity,

otherwords,Lech’sconceptualmeaninghastwosides:nand

reference.

elations

rds

havetwosimilarnthanothers,e.g.,thenofdeskismoreclorto

elationsmaybedefinedasthemantic

relationsbetweenonewordandanother,orbetweenonelinguisticunitand

rast,

referenceisconcernedwiththerelationbetweenawordandthethingit

refersto,orbetweenalinguisticunitaandanon-linguisticentityitrefers

to.

(1)Synonymy

rsto

hatarecloin

meaningarecalledsynonyms.

retwocategoriesof

wordsinEnglishvocabulary:nativewordsandborrowedwords,orinb

otherwords,remanypairsofwords

ofthetwosourceswhichmeanthesame,e.g.,buyandpurcha,world

意义关系：指可以在单

个词之间或词组之间建

立起来的意义关系。

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oruniver,etc.

InthelonghistoryofEnglishdevelopment,thelanguagehastakenina

largenumberofwordsfromotherlanguages,mostlyEuropeanlangauges,

suchasFrench,Latin,Greek,Italian,theborrowed

ore,weoftenfindinEnglishpairsor

lly,itisthe

Anglo-Saxonwordsthatareudastheneutralorinformalterm;words

fromFrencharerelativelymoreformal,andwordsofLatinoriginare

restrictedtoparticularlinguisticorsituationalcontexts.

odd---strange---peculiarthink---ponder---consider

anger---annoy---irritateteach---instruct

Buttotalsynonymyisrare,foritisuncessaryforalanguagetohave

-calledsynonymsareallcontext

ldifferonwayoranother.

talsynonyms(Synonymsthatdifferinregional

dialect)---synonymsudindifferentregionaldialects.

Thearewordswithmoreorlessthesamemeaningudindifferent

hEnglishandAmericanEnglisharethetwomajor

geographicalvarietiesoftheEnglishlanguage.

autumn---fall;underground---subway/tube;lift---elevator;

flat---apartment;

luggage---baggage;lorry---truck;staff---faculty;petrol---gasoline;

torch---flashlight;highsalary---bigpay

ThendialectalsynonymscanalsobefoundwithinBritishEnglish,or

mple,“girl”iscalled“lass”or“lassie”

(RobertBurns)inScottishdialect,and“liquor”iscalled“whisky”inIrish

dialect.

ticsynonyms—synonymsdifferinginstyle

Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeof

rwords,somewordstendtobemoreformal,othesr

casual,esomeexamples:

old/daddy/dad/father/maleparent;start/begin/commence(正式：开始、

着手)

kid/child/offspring;employer/boss;lucky/fortunate;buy/purcha;

anger/annoy;kickthebucket(蹬腿儿)/popoff(非正式：突然死

掉)/die/passaway/decea（正式法律：突然死掉）。

真正或完全的同义词，

也就是说，在任何上下

文中都可以互换的词是

非常少的。大部分是近

义词（near-synonyms）。

两个或两个意义相近的

词，如help/aid/assist或

woman/female/lady等。

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msthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluativemeaning

Thearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotions

oftheur,indicatingtheattitudeorbiasoftheurtowardwhatheis

mple,“collaborator”(合作者)and“accomplice”(帮

凶、从犯)aresynonymousinthatthetsharethemeaningof“apersonwho

helpsanother,”buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoing

somethinggood,

whichwordyouwouldudependsonyourevaluationoftheofthenature

oftheactivityofthepersonconcernedhelpsin.

famous/notorious;little(fondness)/small(objective)

ationalsynonyms

Somesynonymsdifferintheircollocation,i.e.,inthewordstheygo

wanttosaythatsomeone

hasdonesomethingwrongorevencriminal,wecanu“accu”,

“charge”,or“rebuke”,buttheyarefollowedbydifferentprepositions:

accu…of,charge…with,andrebuke…amplesare“strong

coffee”,but“powerfulmachine”.

rotten（蔬菜等）tomatoes,addled(专指蛋)eggs,rancid(油脂食物)

bacon,sour(变酸)milk。

icallydifferentsynonyms(Synonymsdifferingin

connotation)

Thearesynonymsthatdifferslightlyinwhattheymeansuchas:

thrifty/economical/stingy(小气);each/every;statesman/politician;

besides/except.

(2)Antonymy

Thetermantonymyisudforoppositenessofmeaning:wordsthat

ldnotbemisledinto

matteroffact,therearethreesub-types:Gradableantonymy,

complementaryantonymy,andconverantonymy.

leantonymy(等级反义现象)

tonymsaregradable

becauthereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofa

mple,

“old”and“young”areimmediatelyrecognizedasantonyms,buttheystand

fortwoextremes,betweenwhichthereexistintermediateformssuchas

“middle-aged”,“mature”,“elderly”.Similarlybetween“hot”and“cold”

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thereexistvaryingqualitiesof“warm”and“cool”.Thegradableantonyms

havethreecharacteristics.

amesuggests,,themembersofa

ialofoneisnotnecessarilythe

ingwhichisnot“good”isnotnecessarily

“bad”.Itmaybe“so-so”.Moreover,thewordscouldbedefinedby

“very”,suchas“verygood”,or“verybad”.Andtheymayhave

comparativeandsuperlativedegreesas“better,best”or“wor,worst”.

Sometimes,theintermediatedegreesmaybeexpresdbyparatewords

mple,thetermforthesizewhichis

neitherlargeorsmallis“medium”;andthetermbetween“warm”and

“cool”is“lukewarm”(微温的).

msofthiskindaregradedagainstdifferentnorms().There

arenoabsolutecriterionbywhichwemaysaysomethingisgoodorbad,

longorshort,terionvarieswiththeobjectdescribed,

bigcar—smallpalne

berofapair,usuallythetermforthehigherdegree,

rvesastheCoverTerm().Forexample,theword“old”isudtocover

stionsahouldbemadebyusingthecoverterm

as“Howoldareyou?”(Whatisyourage?)or“Howlongwillyoustay

here?”cally,thecovertermiscalled“unmarked”or“usual”.

Thatmeans,ingeneral,

coverdisud,itsuggeststhatthereissomethingunusualhere—the

speakermayalreadyknowthatsomebodyorsomethingisyoung,small,

aracteristicisalsoreflectedin

thecorrespondingnouns,suchaslengh,height,width,breadth,anddepth,

whicharefromthecoverterms.

mentaryantonymy

Complementaryantonymsaredifferentfromgradableantonyms.A

pairofcomplementaryantonymsischaracterizedbythefeaturethatthe

rwords,it

isnotamatterofdegreebetweentwoextremes,butamatterofeitherone

epairs“alive—dead”,“male—female”,

prent—abnt”,“odd—even”,“pass—fail”,“boy—girl”.Forexample,a

personcanbeeither“alive”or“dead”,either“male”or“female”;therisno

,theydevideupthewholeofamantiocfield

aquestionoftwotermchoice:yesorno;notachoice

Amancannotbeneither

aliveordead.“半死不

活”仍然活着。

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realsothreecharacteristicsofthistype

comparedwithgradableantonyms:

ectivesinthistypecannotbemodifiedby“very”.Andthey

donothavecomparativeorsuperlativedegreeither.“Heismoredead

thanalive”means“Itismorecorrecttosayheisdeadthantosayheis

alive.”

enormisudforallthe

mple,thecriterionforparatingthemale

fromthefemaleisthesamewiththehumanbeingsandanimals,andthe

deathofamanisthesameasthedeathofanelephant,orevenatree.

onot

knowthexofababy,youask“Isitaboyoragirl?”Butnot“Howmale

isthebaby?”Asamatteroffact,noadjectivesinthistypecanbemodified

by“how”.Butthepairofantonyms“true/fal”ixceptionaltosome

theyareregardedascomplementary,thereiscoverterm.

Wecansay“Howtrueisthestory?”Andthereisanoun“truth”.Wecan

alsou“very”tomodefy“true”.Itevenhascomparativeandsuperlative

degree.

antonymy/Relationalopposites相对反义/关系对立

Pairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthe

aspecialtypeofantonymy

inthatthemembersofapairdonotconstituteapositive-negative

owthereversalofarelationshipbetweentwoentities.

Pairsofwordslikebuy—ll,lend—borrow,give—receive,parent—child,

husband—wife,host—guest,teacher—student,above—below,

before—esamerelationshipenfromtwo

differentangles.

Thistypeofantonymyistypicallyen,astheexamplesshownin

reciprocalsocialroles,kinshiprelations,

realways

nverantonyms,

eisabuyer,theremustalsobealler.A

tachild,

rpeople,heisnotateacher.

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