capital city

ArchaicAge(776-479BC)

TheventhandsixthcenturiesbelongtotheperiodcalledtheArchaicAge(c.750-500BC).

Duringthotwohundredyearsthepaceofchangeanddevelopmentacceleratedrapidly,

continuingandsurpassingtheprogressmadeintheeighthcenturyasGreeceemergedfromits

therneglectedbyhistoriansasbeingmerelythepreludetothegloriousand

tragicfifthandfourthcenturies—theClassicalperiod—theArchaicperiodisennowasthe

decisiveformativetimeoftheintellectual,cultural,andpoliticalachievementsofGreece’s

‘GoldenAge.’

Thecity-stateformofgovernment,whichcameintobeingwiththedemographicandeconomic

changesoftheeighthcentury,ymovement

ofoverascolonization,startinginthelatereighthcenturyandcontinuingintothesixth,spread

theGree,

helpedbycolonization,disperdGreekgoodsfarbeyondthelimitsknowntotheBronzeAge

tureandartflourished;newgenresofartisticandintellectualexpressionwere

atPanhellenicshrines,festivals,andoraclesgrewinimportance,further

nourishingtheidealoftheculturalunityofallGreekvenastheGreekworldexpandedtofar

theGreekcity-states,newideasbegantoform,twoofwhichwouldshape

thehistoryofwesternworld:arationalviewoftheuniver,whicheliminatedsupernaturalcaus

fornaturaleventsandreplacedthemwithscientificexplanations,andtheconceptofdemocratic

government,inwhichallmemberswereequalunderthelawsandlawsweremadebythepeople

directlybymajorityrule.

onedemosagainstanotherbecamemuch

,ders,withtheir

armedfollowers,ngeconomic

inequalitycaudmuchhumanmiryandproducedrioustensionsbetweenthefewrichandthe

manypoor,calinstabilitygaveritoa

newtypeofleader,the‘tyrant,’ll,however,

itsproblems,theArchaicperiodwasoneofgrowing

confidenceandprosperity;byitndtheGreekstateshadmadeprogresstowardsolvingtheir

internalproblemsandtheircitizenswerelivingtogetherinrelativeharmony.

TheFormationoftheCity-state(Polis)

Theciarly

venthcenturydozensofGreekcommunitiesallacrosstheGreekworld,fromIoniaintheeastto

SicilyandsouthernItalyinthewest,is,asthe

Greekscalledit,rvedasthecharacteristicsocialandpoliticalorganizationforGreeksuntilat

eal,thepolishashadenormoussignificanceinthehistoryoflater

ywords‘political’and‘politics’arederiveddirectlyfrompolis.

Whatisacity-state?Asimplifieddefinitionis:ageographicalareacomprisingacityandits

adjacentterritory,whichtogethermakeupasingle,ential

italcitiesofwhat

becamecity-statexistedallthroughtheDarkAge,andmostofthemhadbeenthemajorcenters

ritorialcommunity,thedēmos,appearsfully

evolvedintheHomericepics,andthereforetheunitaryconceptof‘theland’and‘thepeople’must

thedemostherewasacollectiveidentification—‘the

Ithacans,’‘thePylians’—primary

governmentalorgansofthecity-states,theasmblyofmenoffightageandthecouncilof

‘elders,’twaslackingtomakethe

dēmos–communitiesof800BCintothepolis-statesof700BCwerecertainnecessaryformalities:

formalpoliticalunificationofthedemosandthecreationofacentralgovernment.

PoliticalUnification(Synoecism)

Inallcity-states,fromancientMesopotamiatoRenaissanceEurope,thecapitalcityisthefocal

ginalmeaningoftheGreekwordpolis(pluralpoleis),was‘town’or

‘city,’reeksofthecity-stateperiod,

however,thepoliscompridnotonlythecapitalcityortown(polis)butitsadjacentterritoryas

membersofthatterritory,boththowholivedinthecapitalandthowholivedin

thecountryside,werecalledpolitai(membersofthepolis)asiftheyalllivedtogetherinthepolis

(city).

LaterGreeksreferredtotheprocessofpoliticalunificationofstatesassyn-oikismos,whichmay

beloolytranslatedas‘comingtolivetogether,’ormoreliterally,‘havingtheoikoitogether.’

‘Synoecism,’toutheanglicizedterm,wastheprocessbywhicheverytown,village,andhamlet

erlocalautonomytheyhadformerlyenjoyed,

whateverfreedomofactiontheyhadexercidparatefromthecapitalandtheotherttlements,

er,,alltho

wholivedintheterritoryofAttica,ofwhichAthenswasthecapitalcity,referredtothemlves

(andwerereferredtobyothers)as‘theAthenians,’eveniftheylived25milesfromthecityof

Athens.

Synoecismtookdifferentforms,ismofasmall

demosmadeupofasinglemaintownanditsadjacentplain,holdingacoupleofsubsidiary

villages,ecas,polis(thestate)andpolis(thetown)were

mple,thepolis(city-state)ofSicyonoccupiedasmallplains

region(Sicyonia)ofabout140squaremiles,whicheveninthefifthcenturycontainedonlyafew

eeveryonelivedwithinafewmilesof

everyoneel,andmostofthefewhundredfamiliesinthedemoswereinterrelated,drawingthem

togetherasasinglepoliticalunitwasmerelyamatterofmakingformaltheancienttiesofkinship

andneighthe

veralhundredcity-statesthatcameintoexistenceduringtheArchaicperiodwereoftheSicyon

variety,asingletownanditssmallplain;themajority,infact,wereevensmallerinterritorythan

Sicyon.

Synoecismoftheregionalterritories,thothatcontainedveralimportanttownsandvillages

besidesthecentraltown,rly

opinionisthattheunificationoftheregionalstateswasadrawn-outdevelopment,beginning

ologyprovidesa

oughtthatduring

theeighthcenturytemplesandshrinestothegodsandheroesofaregionaldemoswerebuiltinthe

countrysidetoconnectthecentersymbolicallytotheoutlyingvillages;religiousprocessionsfrom

themainpolistotheoutersanctuarieswouldhavefosteredandstrengthenedthenofbeinga

singlenation.

Insomeregions,unificationwasvoluntaryandpeaceful,asinMegarisundertheleadershipof

vidence,however,thatinothermainland

regionsintimidationandevenforcewasudtointegratethetownsandvillagesintoasinglepolis.

TheoriginalfourvillagesofSpartaabsorbedthevillageofAmyclae,3milessouth,intothe

unifiedSpartanpolisagainstitswill,andreducedthemoredistantttlementsofLaconiatoa

,forexample,neverfully

succeededinunifyingthewholeofthelargeregionofArgolis,andanumberofsmall,parate,

independethinthe

egionswere

ghThebeshadbeentheprincipalttlementinthelarge

fertileregionofBoeotiasincetheEarlyBronzeAge,theThebanscontrolledonlytheirlocalarea

andhadtodealonmoreorlesqualtermswithtenotherdistrictpoleis.

Asthisbriefsketchshows,gionexperienced

itsownkindofcity-statedevelopmentwhichwasdeterminedbylocalfactorsthatarehiddenfrom

ortantfactisthatbyaround700BCthepermanentboundariesoftheGreekpoleis

adjustmentscontinuedtobemadehereandthere—asmall

polisabsorbedbyalargerneighboringpolis—butthepoliticalmapof700BCremainedmuchthe

samethroughouttheArchaicperiodandbeyond.

TheEthnos

ThehistoryofGreecebetween700and400BCwasprimarilythehistoryofcity-states,forthey

erehugeareasofGreece,however,thathada

eknamefortheregionswathnos,variously

translatedas‘tribe,’‘nation,’or‘people.’Anethnoswasaregionalterritoryandpeople(adēmos)

withoutasingleurbancenteroracentralgovernmentorformalpoliticalunion.

Thecity-stateGreekstendedtoregardtheethnē(plural)aspoliticallyandculturallybackward.

Infact,theethnēoftheventhandevensixthcenturieswereatastageverymuchlikethatofthe

regionaldēhnospeoplewereunitedinworshipofthegodsofthe

le

town,however,wastheofficialcapitaloftheethnos;and,asinHomericsociety,unitedaction

occurredinfrequently,

thisgeneraldescription,however,a,forexample,wasa

eredfromthesynoecizedregionofAttica

inonesignificantway:alltheinhabitantsofallthetownsandvillagesofAtticaconsidered

themlves‘Athenians,’whereasinBoeotiatheyidentifiedthemlvesas‘Thebans,’or

‘Plataeans,’or‘Orchomenians’first,andonlycondarilyas‘Boeotians.’

enianscouldcall

onthemanpowerof1000squaremiles,whereastheThebanshadonlythemenwholivedinthe

litarilypowerfulthe

Thebanshadtoformallianceswiththeirneighboringpoleis,whomightormightnotcontribute

neofthe

Peloponnesus—Arcadia,Achaea,andElis—weresimilarlydividedintoparate,smallpoleisand

weresimilarlycond-rankpowersuntiltheyformedeffectivealliancesamongtheirconstituent

city-states.

egionscontainednolarge

urbancenters;thepop

districtswerenotsynoecizedintopoleis,butrathereachvillagewasindependentandautonomous.

Evenanethnosofthistype,however,hadsomekindofcommunalgovernmentthroughwhichit

th-centuryhistorianThucydides

427BCthe

Athenians,whowereagreatpoweratthetime,re

toldthat,‘TheethnosoftheAetolianswasindeedlargeandwarlike,butastheylivedinunwalled

villageswhichwerewidelydisperd,andwerealsolightlyarmed,theycouldbeeasilycrushed

beforetheycouldgathertheirforces’(3.94.4).Countingonthisfragmentation,theAthenians

ysintothecampaign,however,

AetolianwarriorsasmbledfromeverypartoftheterritoryanddrovetheAtheniansoutwith

heavyloss.

GovernmentintheEarlyCity-states

Thestepsthatledtotheestablishmentofacity-stateweretheworkofthelandowningaristocracy

calunioncouldnothaveoccurredunlessthelocalbasileis,

theleadersofthedistricts,towns,andvillagesofthedemos,esmallgroup

ernmentalstructures

oftheindividualcity-states,aswefirstglimpthemintheearlyventhcentury,differedin

specifics,yetallfollowedasimilarpattern:(1)Theofficeofparamountbasileuswaither

abolishedcompletelyorwasgreatlyreducedinpower.(2)Thegoverningfunctionsformerly

exercidbythebasileusweredistributedamongveralofficials.(3)Theimportanceofthe

councilofaristocratic‘elders’incread,

cour,therces

makeitclear,however,thattheprocessofdeterminingwhichvillagesanddistrictsweretobe

includedinthepolisandwhatkindofgovernmentitwouldhavetooknomorethantwoorthree

generations.

Thepowerfulfamiliesmadeacooperativearrangementtosubdividethespheresof

authority—administrative,military,religious,andjudicial—amongmagistraciesthatwerenot

erGreekscalledthiskindofgovernmentan

oligarchy(oligoi=‘few’).Therulingoligarchsreferredtothemlvesasaristoi,the‘bestmen’;

hencetheterm‘aristocracy.’Althoughthetermsoligarchia(oligarchy)andaristokratia

(aristocracy)donotoccurinliteratureorinscriptionsbeforethefifthcentury,theideathatthefew

bestwerethefittesttorulewascertainlypromotedassiduouslybythewealthy,well-bornfamilies

whocontrolledtheArchaiccity-states.

Eachofthecity-statesdevelopeditsownsystemofmagistraciesaccordingtoitsownneedsand

raltherewasnohierarchyamongthemajoroffices,althoughmanystates

monestnames

forthechiefofficerwerearchōn(e.g.,atAthensandelwhereincentralGreece)andprytanis

(e.g.,atCorinthandpoleisinIonia).Bothareverygeneraltitles:archōn(likearchos)means

simple‘leader’andprytanismeanssomethinglike‘presidingofficer.’Amorespecificallynamed

earlyofficer(e.g.,atAthensandMegara)wasthepolemarchos(‘warleader’).Manyother

city-states,especiallythesmallerones,weregovernedbysmallboardsorcollegesofmagistrates,

whodividedthefu

moststates,bythemiddleoftheventhcenturytermofofficewaslimitedtoasingleyearand

easureshadthe

dualpurpoofcurbingthepowerofanysinglemagistrateandofdistributinghonorsamongthe

wholeofthearistocraticcommunity.

Thetruecenterofpowerinthegovernmentoftheearlycity-states,however,wasnotthe

rchaicpoleisthecouncilhadevenmorepower

thantheboulēberswerenormallyrecruitedfromthehighest

magistrates,shipinthecouncilmight

beforalongtermorevenforlife.

Correspondingtotheincreadpowerofthecouncil,thelimitedpoweroftheasmblyofadult

malecitiates

excludedthepoorestcitizensfrommembershipintheasmblybyimposingaproperty

strictedthenumberofasmblymeetingsandthebusinesstobebrought

beforeit,alsovereigntyofthearistocratic

council,however,wasshort-lived;astimewentontheinclusivenessandauthorityoftheasmbly

,beforetheendofthesixthcentury,eveninoligarchic

city-states,theasmblyhadgainedtheultimatedecision-makingpower.

TheSurvivalofBasileisintheArchaicPeriod

AlthoughthepositionofparamountbasileusceadtoexistinitstraditionalDarkAgeform,it

y,thetitleofbasileus

ponsibilities

states,thechiefmagistrate

borethetitleofbasileus;afewappeartohavebeenmilitaryofficials,equivalenttothepolemarch.

Thelargemajority,however,werechargeofreligiousmattersandalsohadjudicialduties,

especiallyincashavingtodowithreligion,suchashomicides(whichpollutedthecommunity).

Thewidespreaddesignationofthetitlebasileusforreligiousofficialssignalshowgreata

reverencewasstillattachedtothename;theGreeksfeltaneedtokeeptheveryimportant

religioussphereofpolislifeconnectedtothebasileisofold,theancestralheroesofthedemos.

Therewereevenexceptionalcasofstates,mostlyofDorianorigin,keepingaliveaformof

s,adynastyofhereditarybasileisretainedauthorityintothe

venthcentury,hem,

Pheidon,usinghispositionoftraditionalbasileusasaspringboard,managedtomakehimlfinto

atyrantwithabsolutepowers.

TheSpartansretainedthechiefsystemthelongest,partan

systemofgovernmentthereweretwohereditary,life-longbasileiswhorulejointly,acustomthat

,thepowersoftheSpartanbasileiswerefar

dretainconsiderableauthorityasmilitarycommanders;buttocurbtheir

powertheSpartanschoanannualboardoffivemagistrates,ephoroi(‘overers’),whojobit

wastomauance

ofhereditary‘kingships,’thoughverelylimitedinpower,isalsoattestedforveralotherpoleis,

someofwhichlasteduntilthefifthcenturyandbeyond.

Thepowerandauthorityofthebasileuswerealsoperpetuatedthroughso-calledroyalclans.

daryCorinthianbasileusnamedBacchis

foundedanewlineofchiefscalledtheBacchiads,the‘descendantsofBacchis.’Accordingtothe

tradition,theBacchiadbasileisruledinsuccessionforveralgenerationsuntil747BC,whenthe

ollectivelytookovertheleadershipofCorinth,

retainingthefamilyname‘Bacchiads.’TheBacchiads,saidtonumbermorethantwohundred,

chooneamongthemeveryyeartobeprytanisanddistributedamongthemlvesotheroffices

srtionofcommondescentfromBacchiswasapurefiction,butwasveryuful

ality,theywereanarrowoligarchy

ofprominent,retheirexclusivityasa‘clan,’thefamiliesmarriedonly

ulelastedthreegenerationsuntil657,whentheywereoverthrownby

thetyrantCyplus.

Similar‘royalclans’appearedinmanyotherpoleis,

themid-eighthcentury,asmallgroupofaristocraticfamilieswhocalledthemlvesthePenthilids

tookoverthegovernmentofMytilene,themainpolisofLesbos,andruledforaboutacentury.

TheyderivedtheirnameandclaimtorulefromPenthilus,grandsonofAgamemnonandsonof

Orestes,manner,theIonianpolisofMiletuswasruled

foratimebytheNeleids,whoclaimeddescentfromNeleus,

veralothercity-statestherulingfamiliessimplyassignedthemlvesthegenericname,‘the

Basilids,’thatis,‘thedescendantsofthebasileus.’Alltheroyalclans,whichappropriatedfor

themlvestheauthorityandpowerofthebasileisonthebasisoftheirdirectdescentfromthem,

iddleoftheventhcenturymostof

themhadbeendisplaced,eitherbyabroaderoligarchyorbyatyrant.

TheColonizingMovement

TheemergenceofthepolissysteminGreececoincidedwiththebeginningofanextraordinary

igrationbeganaboutthemiddleofthe

endedaround500BCtheGreek

marycausofthis

remarkableexpansionweretwofold:thearchforsourcesofmetaltosatisfytheGreeks’growing

needandthehopeofacquiringthelandrequiredtolivethelifeofacitizeninthenewpoleis,as

opportunitiesforlandathomedwindled.

Thedecisiontofoundacolonywasoneoftheearliestandmostdifficultpoliticalactionstaken

byapolis,rcity(mētropolis)hadto

chooasiteforthecolony,obtaindivineapprovalforit,makeplansforthenewttlement,and

chooitsoikistēs(founder).Moreover,thedecisiontofoundacolonyinvolvedthewhole

ngacolonyalsoindirectlydefineda

metropolis’citizenbody,sincethowhojoinedacolonygaveuptheircitizenshipinthe

mother-city.

Oncethedecisiontofoundacolonyhadbeenmade,itwastheoikistwhowasresponsiblefor

(Odysy6.7-10)clearlydescribedhistask:leadthecoloniststotheirnew

home,layoutthecolony’sdefens,locatethesanctuariesofthegods,andassignhouplotsand

ikistfulfilledhisdutieswily,hewouldbecometherulerofanew

onyitlfwouldremainlinkedtoitsmetropolis

bybondsofkinshipandcultsymbolizedbythefiretheoikistbroughtfromthemetropolis’hearth

thecultsofthegodswouldbeproperlyobrvedin

thecolony,i,however,the

colonywasanewandcompletelyindependentpolis,astheGreektermforacolony,apoikia,

indicates:a‘homeaway[fromtheiroldhome]’forthecolonists.

erarytradition

concerningGreekcolonizationincumberedwithlegendsintendedtoconnectvariouscolonies

edofthelegendary

accretions,theGreeksourcesprervelittlemorethanabareskeletonofdatesofcolonial

foundations,namesoffoundingcities,and,sometimes,ofoikistsaswell.

Archaeologyhasmaditpossibleforhistorianstoovercomethelimitationsofthewritten

sourcesbyconfirmingthegeneralchronologyofcolonialfoundations,revealingthedetailsof

colonialcityplanning,andprovidingevidenceforrelationsbetweenthecoloniestotheGreek

ologicalevidencealsoindicatesthatthecolonizingmovementhadtwophas,

stbeganaboutthemid-eighthcenturyBCandwas

directedtoItalyandthewesternMediterranean;thecondstartedaboutacenturylaterandwas

concentratedonthenorthAegeanandtheBlackSea.

ThepioneersinthecolonizationofItalywereEuboeansfromChalcisandEretria,thesame

peopleswhohadhelpedmaintaincontactbetweenGreeceandtheNearEastduringtheDarkAge.

FollowingroutesthatprobablyhadbeenblazedbyPhoeniciantraders,theyfoundedtheirfirst

ttlementontheislandofPithecusaeintheBayofNaplesintheearlyeighthcenturyBC.

PithecusaeconformedtothepictureofanidealcolonialsitedescribedintheOdysy(9.116-141):

adertedisland,with‘meadows,well-wateredandsoft;thegrapevineswouldgrowthere

endlessly;andthereislevelplowland…salsoaharbor

givingsafeanchoragewithnoneedformooringcablesoranchorstones.…’Pithecusaewasalso

welllocatedtoexploitandirondepositsonthenearbyislandofElbaandtotradewiththeItalic

tlementgrewrapidly,attractingttlersnotonlyfromthe

oeansfolloweduptheirsuccessatPithecusaewith

additionalttlementsbothontheItalianmainlandatCumae(757BC),nearmodernNaples,and

innortheasternSicily,wheretheyfoundedNaxus(734),Leontini(729),Catana(729),and

Rhegium(712).

Meanwhile,ItalyandSicilyalsoattractedtheattentionoftheDorianpoleisofthePeloponnesus.

Wrackedbytheproblemsofunequaldistributionoflandathome,thecitiessoughtoutsitesfor

aeansmovedfirst,foundinginthelate

quicklyfollowed,establishingits

onlycolony,Taras(712BC)chiadrulers

ofCorinthalsosoughtasolutiontotheirinternalproblemsinthewest,foundingCorcyrainthe

southernAdriaticSea(c.734BC)and,mostimportantly,Syracu(733),whichwouldultimately

dominatethewholeofsoutheasternSicilyandplayamajorroleinthestruggleforpowerinthe

centralMediterraneanbetweenRomeandCarthage.

Greekounded

CyreneinLibyainthelateventhcenturyBC(c.630),butitwasthefarwestthatofferedthe

ingtoHerodotus,Greeksfirstlearnedoftheopportunitiesofferedby

thewesternMediterraneanwhenaSamianmerchantnamedColaeusreturnedfromthekingdomof

otSamos,however,butthe

westAnatoliancityofPhocaeathattookadvantageofColaeus’discovery,foundingabout600BC

Massalia(modernMarilles)atthemouthoftheRhoneRiver.

Massiliaquicklyexploiteditssuperblocation,tradingwiththeCelticinhabitantsoftheupper

Rhonevalleyandes

theearlysixthcentury,however,opportunitiesforfurtherGreekexpansioninthecentraland

erfulPhoeniciancolonyofCarthagein

modernTunisia—probablyfoundedinthelateninthcenturyBC—alsohadambitionsintheregion

andestablisheditsowncolonialempireinwesternSicily,Corsica,Sardinia,andsouthernSpain.

WhentheCarthaginiansandtheirEtruscanalliesforcedthePhocaeanstoevacuatetheircolonyat

AlaliaonCorsicainthemid-sixthcenturyBC,Greekcolonizationinthecentralandwestern

Mediterraneancametoanend.

AscolonizingopportunitiesshrankintheMediterranean,Greeksturnedtothenortheastfornew

tedbytherichfishingandagriculturalwealthoftheHellespontandBlack

Searegion,tactiveof

thewasMiletus,creditedbytheancientsourceswithventycolonies,thoughtheactual

iletus’numerouscoloniesweresuchimportant

citiesasCyzicus(675BC)neartheentranceoftheHellespontSinope(lateventhcentury)onthe

northcoastofAnatolia,Olbia(c.550)atthemouthoftheBugRiverinsouthwesternUkraine,and

Panticapeum(c.600)alsocolonizedinthisarea,occupyingtheimportant

sitesofByzantiumandChalcedononbothsidesoftheBosphorusaswellasfoundingthecityof

HeracleaPontica(560BC)innorthwestAnatolianearoneofthereputedentrancestoHades.

Becautheyhadnorivalsinthisarea,unlikeintheMediterraneanbasin,theGreekswereableto

establishnewcoloniesthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiodsuntiltheBlackSeawas

almostentirelyringedbyGreekpoleis.

ThecolonizingmovementisoftenviewedprimarilyasthestoryofthespreadofGreeklifeand

poleisproudly

proclaimedtheirGreeknessbybuildingmonumentaltemples,patronizingPanhellenicinstitutions

suchastheDelphicoracleandtheOlympicgames,andeagerlytryingtokeepabreastofcultural

liestexamplesoftheGreekalphabetandhexameterverin

heless,thecreationofnewpoleisinonlypartofthestoryof

Greekcolonization.

Everywherethesmallcolonialexpeditionsttled,theyencountered‘barbarians,’thenon-Greek

ties,suchasSyracu,

Byzantium,andHeracleaPontica,ultimatelysucceededinexpellingorenslavingtheirnon-Greek

ocalchroniclerslatercelebratedthevictorieswithchauvinisticstoriesofhow

lonies,however,werenotsofortunate

andhadtofindaccommodationswiththeirnon-Greekneighbors,tradingandintermarryingwith

them,ererisksonbothsides;Herodotustellsa

tragicstoryofaScythiankingwhomarriedaGreekwomanandbecameadevoteeofDionysus,

ten,however,asthediscoveryofGreek

manufacturesinsouthernFranceandthespreadoftheGreekalphabet,art,andcultsamongthe

Etruscansindicate,thecoloniesbecamegatewaysthroughwhichthepeoplesofsouthernEurope

andthethe

culturalexchangeallinonedirection,ascultssuchasthooftheThraciangoddessBendisand

thedivinemusicianOrpheusspreadthroughouttheAegeanandbeyond.

TheHopliteArmy

nabout725and650the

orthallGreekbattleswere

foughtbyheavilyarmoredfootsoldierscalledhoplites,arrangedinatightlypackedformation

lanx,manynowbelieve,evolvedfromanearlierloortypeofmass

‘protophalanx,’asitissometimescalled,thefightingmenweregroupedin

tophalanxisdepictedintheIliad,thought

fordramaticeffectthepoetconcentratesonencountersbetweenindividualwarrior-heroes,largely

oudsourunderstandingoftheactual

ars,however,thatthehostileranksinHomermove

intospearrange,hurltheirpairofshortthrowingspears,andthenfighthandtohandwiththeir

longswords.

Asthephalanxevolved,itbecameprogressivelymorecompact,withthesoldierslinedup

almostshouldertoshoulderandeachrankalmosttreadingontheheelsoftheoneinfrontofit.

Phalanxfightingwassimpleintheextreme:thetwoclo-packedphalanxeschargeatoneanother

evelopedform(by650atthe

latest),sandarmorevolvedintandemwiththe

compactphalanx,lite’smainweaponwashislongheavyspear,

heinitialcollision,whentherewasnoroomtojab

withthespear,thehopliteudhiscondaryweapon,litebattle

s,upper-bodyarmor

(breast-plates),andshin-and-kneeprotectors(greaves),allofwhichhadbeenudinearlier

warfare,wereredesignedtobethickerandstronger(bronzereplacedothermaterials,suchas

paddedlinen)andtocoverlargerareasofthebody.

Themostinnovativeitemofequipmentwasanewtypeofshieldcalledthehoplon,afterwhich

edspecificallyforthephalanxformation,itwasround,madeof

hehoplonthatmadethephalanxaneffective

thanallpreviousroundshields(about3feetindiameter),itwasheldby

lonwaslarge

enoughtocoverthemanontheleft,allowinghoplitestofightshouldertoshoulderwithhalfof

theirbodyprotectedbythenextman’omthefront,aphalanxprentednearlya

solidwallofshields,helmetedheads,andspears.

nalfromatrumpet,thephalanxadvancedatafast

walk,sometimesatatrot;thentheycameclo,thefrontranksraidtheirspears,stabbing

overhandattheenemy,ile,theranks

behindliterallyshovedagainstthoinfront—themaneuverwascalled‘thepushing’—usingtheir

weighttobreaktheenemy’uscouragewasrequiredofeverysinglewarrior,for

thefightbroughtthe

contemptofthewholedemos;thusmenasarulestoodtheirground,‘bitingtheirlipwiththeir

teeth,’astheSpartanpoetTyrtaeus(c.650BC)says.

ipmentweighedabout70pounds,almost

nbearablyhotinsidethearmor;visionwasrestrictedby

thedustandthehelmet;newasspatteredwithblood;wounded

tleswerefairlybrief,however,ldommorethananhour.

Casualtieswererelativelylightforthelorsaswellasthevictors,

theenemybrokeranksandfledtherewasnotmuchpursuit,sothatmassacresofthedefeated

er,campaignswereshort;usually,asingletbattleendedthefightingfor

desburiedtheirdeadandwentbackhometoworktheirlandsorpracticetheir

crafts,notdontheirarmoruntilthepolisneededthemagain.

Notallcitizensfoughtinthephalanx,ehopliteshadtofurnishtheirownarms

andarmor,whichwerefairlyexpensive,thepoorestmenweredisqualifiedandrvedinsteadas

he

importanceofthephalanxtothesurvivalofthepolis,andtakingintoconsiderationthatcaptured

armorwouldbedistributedandthatitemsofequipmentwouldbedonated,areasonableestimate

60percentormoreofa

typicalhoplitearmywouldhavecomefromthenonaristocraticfamiliesofthepolis.

lityofstrictequality

intheranks,wherearistocratsandnonaristocratsfoughtsidebyside,wasmakingitincreasingly

difficultforthout

theArchaicandClassicalperiodsthenonaristocratichopliteswouldplayakeyroleasthe

independentvariableinthepowerrelationswithinthecity-state.

Thisclass,comprisingfairlywell-offfarmersandcraftsmen,wasthepivotalgroupin

determiningwhere

theywerecontentwithanunevendistributionofpowerandagreedtoorabettedtheexploitation

oftheweak,,ontheotherhand,theyoppodthestatusquo

andsympathizedwiththebottomhalfofthecitizenry,thebalanceofpowershiftedfromtheelite

ethewell-offfarmerstendedtowardconrvatism,mostGreekpoleisinthe

ArchaicandClassicalperiodsweremoderatelyoligarchical,grantingcitizenrightsinaccordance

hocity-stateswheretheupperlevelofthemiddlegroupcame

downfirmlyonthesideofthepoor,therewascompletelegalandpoliticalequalitybetweenthe

idswingsfromoligarchytodemocracy(andviceversa)thatoccurredso

frequentlyinthehistoryofapolisarebestexplainedbytheshiftsinattitudeofthenonaristocratic

soplayedamajorroleinthepoliticalphenomenontheGreekscalledtyranny

(tyrannis).

TheArchaicAgeTyrants

Hardlyhadthearistocratsridthemlvesofthepositionofbasileuswhenanewtypeofone-man

rulearointheformofthetyrannos(tyrant).Betweenabout670and500BCagreatnumberof

dstyrannosand

tyranniswereborrowedintotheGreeklanguage(perhapsfromLydiainAsiaMinor)todescribea

formofgovernmentforwhichtheGreekshadnoword:rulebyamanwhoizescontrolofthe

haicAgetyrantwaswhatwecalltodayadictatoror

tuallycameto

meanawickedandoppressivedespot,inpartbecauofpropagandaspreadbythearistocrats,

whonaturallyhatedthemenwhohadoverthrowntheirregimes,butalsobecaulatergenerations

perceivedthatdictatorialrulebyonemannotaccountabletothedemosthreatenedthefreedomof

reareampleindicationsthatthenonaristocraticcontemporariesoftheearlytyrants

unately,onlyafewofthedozensoftyrantswho

,wecaneageneralpatternintheir

riandfall.

ghallthetyrantstriedtoformdynastiesbypassingontheir

ruletotheirsons,notyrannylastedmorethanthreegenerationsandmostcollapdafteroneor

earistocratichatepropagandathatdescribedsometyrantsaslow-born,itappearsthat

mple,PheidonofArgoswasthehereditarybasileus

tyrants,however,werefromthetop-ranked

usofCorinth,forinstance(c.657-627),wasmarginalizedwithinthe‘royalclan’

oftheBacchiads,becauhismother,aBacchiad,hadmarriedoutsidetheclan.

Inadditiontotheirmembershipintheelite,would-betyrantsweredistinguishedintheirpoleis

us,priortobecomingatyrant,hadheldthepostof

polemarch(militarycommander).OrthagorasofSicyon(mid-venthcentury)hadalsobeen

fAthens,whoattemptedcoup

in632failed,hadwonfameasavictorintheOlympicgames.

Viciousinfightingamongthearistocraticfamiliesinthepolisforhonorandprecedencewasa

yamongthearistocrats,thoughit

waschanneledtosomeextentintocompetitionforofficesandcontrolwithinthecouncil,was

particularlynastyintheventhandsixthcenturiesbecauthestrugglesforpowerwerewaged

among‘clans’(genos;pluralgenē).Liketheroyalclan,anaristocraticgenos—thewordmeant

esntiallya‘lineage’—wascompodofapreeminentfamilythatextendedtheumbrellaof

fictivekinshipoverlessprestigiousnobleoikoi,whomemberssupportedtheleader-familyinits

esamongthefactions—gangsofhot-headedyoung

aristocrats—frequentlyeruptedinboutsofviolenceandbloodshed.

TheGreekscalledformalconflictbetweengroupswithinthecity-statestasis(‘takingastand’).

Oppositsis

betweenaristocraticfactionsintheArchaicperiod,however,wasmuchmorefrequentlyviolent

thanafterward(whenthepowerofthegenehaddeclined),andwashighlydisruptiveofthesociety.

Wor,becaumembershipinagenoswashereditary,thiskindofcivilwarcouldkeepflaringup

erventionofastrongmanwhocouldstop,oratleastcheck,thefeudsofthe

noblefamilies,thoughanathematothenobles,waswelcometotherestofthepeople.

Toclimbtopowerthe‘renegadearistocrats,’assomecallthem,neededresourcesand

entialsourcewasdisaffectedaristocratswithinthepoliswhowerefrozenout

ndoffollowersmightbesupplementedbyamercenaryforcefrom

dwassometimessuppliedbyafriendlytyrant(forhisabortivecoup,

Cylonreceivedsometroopsfromhisfather-in-lawTheagenes,tyrantofMegara),or,inthecaof

manyoftheIoniantyrantsinthelatesixthcentury,tknowntyrant,

PeisistratusofAthens(whomadethreeattemptsbeforesucceeding),availedhimlfofavariety

ofresources,includinglocalbodyguards,mercenaries,andtroopsdonatedbypowerfuloutsiders.

Notyrant,however,nomatterwhathisresources,couldhavesucceededwithoutsupportofthe

citizensthemlves,snoevidencethatanytyrantcameto

powerattheheadofahoplitearmy,butsuchactiveinterventionwouldnothavebeennecessary.

Anoligarchycouldnothavebeenoverthrownifithadtheloyaltyofthenonaristocratichoplites,

whereasallt

themanyreasonsforthehoplites’disaffectionwitholigarchicalrule,nottheleastwasthatthe

incessantinfightin

forthelowestcitizens,theynaturallywouldhavebeenverysupportiveofacoupagainstthegroup

thatwaxploitingthem.

Thatthetyrantswereviewedaschampionsofthedemosagainsttheoligarchswasthejudgment

tleinthefourthcenturyputitconcily:

Atyrantistupfromamongthedēmosandthemultitudetooppothenotablessothatthepeoplemay

ostallthetyrantshavearin

beingleadersofthepeople[dēmagōgoi;hence‘demagogue’],sotospeak,havinggainedtheirconfidenceby

slanderingthenotables.

(Politics1310b12-17;Rackham1977,adapted)

uskilledorbanished

manyoftheBacchiadaristocratsandconfiscatedtheirlands(presumablysomeofitwentto

poorerCorinthians),smadelawstolimitaristocraticpower

andprivilege,including‘sumptuarylaws,’

alsoprotectedtheexistinginstitutions;AristotlesaidoftheOrthagoriddynastyofSicyonthat‘in

manywaystheywereslavestothelaws.’

Undertyranny,ivebuildingand

improvementprojects—stonetemplesandothermajorbuildings,harborsandfortifications,and

urbanamenitieslikethewatersupply,streets,anddrainagesystems—turnedthecapitaltownsinto

realcities(andalsogaveworktopoorcitizens).

Moreover,trade,commerce,andcraftswereencouragedandsupportedunderthetyrants.

Pheidon,forexample,standardizedweightsandmeasuresforthePeloponnesus,andenormously

lus’sonandsuccessor,

Periander,builtastonetrackwayacrossthenarrowIsthmusofCorinth(whereacanalrunstoday)

allowingshipsandcargoestobehauledbetweentheSaronicandCorinthiangulfs.(Itwasstillin

uaslateas883AD.)Tyrantsalsoinstitutednewreligiouscultsandfestivalsthatcelebratedand

strengthenedtheunityofthepolis,andtheysupportedallculturalactivities,competingtoattract

thebestartists,architects,poets,andthinkersinGreecetostayattheircity.

haictyrantshadgained

popularsuppo

sons,however,wereheirstoanonexistentoffice,

succeededontheirownmerits,butmostfoundthemlvesresortingtoincreasingly‘tyrannical’

measurestorepressopposition,s

wereoverthrown,y,thearistocratswho

craticrulewas

neverthesame,however,mer-hopliteswerenolongerwillingmerelyto

ldthenoblesnow

refutheirinclusionintheprocessofpublicdecisions,ortakeawayfromthepoorthebenefits

thatthetyrantshadbestowedonthemtomaketheirliveasier.