英语语言学

Chapter1Introduction

语言学的定义：

Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.

问题：Howdoyouinterpretthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyof

language?

→Itisascientificstudybecauitisbadonthesystematicinvestigationoflinguisticdata,conducted

withreferencetosomegeneraltheoryoflanguagestructure.

Whatthelinguisthastodo“first,then,but”:

①toobrveandcollectlanguagefactsandgeneralizationsaremadeaboutthem.

②toformulatesomehypothesaboutthelanguagestructure.

③tocheckthehypothesthusformedrepeatedlyagainsttheobrvedfactstofullyprovetheirvalidity.

Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)

问题:Whatarethemajorbranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeachofthemstudy?

→phonetics（语音学）→thestudyofsounds

→phonology（音位学）→studyhowsoundsareputtogetherandudtoconveymeaning

→morphology（形态学）→studythewayinwhichsymbolsormorphemesarearrangedandcombinedto

formwords.

→syntax（句法学）→thestudyofrulesofformingntences

→mantics（语义学）→thestudyofmeaning

→pragmatics（语用学）→thecontextoflanguageu

Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：Thestudiesofallthesocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwith

societyformthecoreofthebranch.

Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relatethestudyoflanguagetopsychology

Appliedlinguistics（应用语言学）：Inanarrownitreferstotheapplicationoflinguistictheoriesand

principlestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandcondlanguages.

Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics:

①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）

②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）

③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）

④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（sure——CourinGeneralLinguistics）

⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（y）

⑥traditionalgrammar（传统语法）/modernlinguistics（现代语言学）

问题：inwhatbasicwaysdoesmodernlinguisticsdifferfromtraditionalgrammar?

①linguisticsisdescriptivewhiletraditionalgrammarisprescriptive.

②modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenlanguageasprimary,notthewritten.

③modernlinguisticsdoesnotforcelanguagesintoaLatin-badframework.

问题：Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronic?Why?

Inmodernlinguistics,asynchronic(不考虑历史演进的,限于一时的)approachemstoenjoypriority

overadiachronic(探求现象变化的,历时的)one.

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Becauitisbelievedthatunlessthevariousstatesofalanguageindifferenthistoricalperiodsare

successfullystudied,itwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistorical

development.

Synchronicdescriptionsareoftenthoughtofasbeingdescriptionsoflanguageinitscurrentexistence,

andmostlinguisticstudiesareofthistype.

问题：Forwhatreasonsdoesmodernlinguisticsgiveprioritytospeechratherthantowriting?

Fromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,tingsystemofany

languageisalways“invented”today’sworld

everydaycommunication,

speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.

Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revid”

guists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeveryday

speech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.

语言的定义：

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsudforhumancommunication.

Designfeaturesoflanguage（7个识别特征）

①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

③duality双层性

Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）

④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性

⑥interchangeability互换性

⑦convention约定性

Functionsoflanguage：

三大主要功能：

Thedescriptivefunction

Theexpressivefunction

Thesocialfunction

RomanJacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）

①speakeraddresr→emotive感情功能

②addrese→conative意动功能

③context→referential所指功能

④message→poetic诗学功能

⑤contact→phaticcommunion交感功能

⑥code→metalinguistic元语言功能

Otherfunctions:

①phaticfunction问候功能

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②informativef.信息功能

③interrogativef.询问功能

④expressivef.表达功能

⑤evocativef.感染功能

⑥directivef.指令功能

⑦performativef.行使（权力）功能

ay

①ideational

②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/socialrelationships）

③textual

问题：

HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomsky’sdistinctionbetween

competenceandperformance?

ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebySaussure,langueisabstract;itisnotthe

isconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.

Langueisrelativelystable;itdoesnotchangefrequently,whileparolevariesfrompeopletopeople,and

fromsituationtosituation.

ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancepropodbytheAmericanlinguistsChomsky,

competenceisadealur’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andtheperformanceistheactual

ectperformanceiscaudbysocialand

psychologicalfactors.

Saussuremakesthis

opinion,paroleissimpleamassoflinguisticfacts,toovariedconfusingforsystematicinvestigation,and

thatlinguisticsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,i.e.,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningthe

actualuoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.

SimilartoSaussure,Chomskythinkswhatlinguistsshouldstudyistheidealspeaker’ｓcompetence,not

hisperformance,whichistoohaphazardtobestudied.

问题：

ttoshowthatitis

esntiallydifferentfromanimalcommunicationsystem?

①arbitrariness任意性（atthesyntacticlevel）

②productivity能产性，创造性

Secondaryunits（底层结构sounds）

③duality双层性

Primaryunits（上层结构unitsofmeaning）

④displacement不受时空限制性（handlegeneralizationandabstraction）

⑤culturaltransmission文化传递性

⑥interchangeability互换性

⑦convention约定性

Chapter2Phonology

Phonetics:（语音学）

①thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage

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②lookatspeechsoundsfrom3distinctbutrelatedpointsofview.

Ⅰstudythesoundsfromthespeaker’spointofview→articulatoryphonetics（发音语音学）

Ⅱlookatthesoundsfromthehearer’spointofview→auditoryphonetics（听觉语音学）

Ⅲstudythewaysoundstravelbylookingatthesoundwaves→acousticphonetics（声学语音学）

③studyhowsoundsareproduced,transmittedandperceived.

Organsofspeech:

⒈threeimportantareas

①Thepharyngealcavity→thethroat

②theoralcavity→themouth

③thenasalcavity→theno

⒉Thepharyngealcavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords

⒊theoralcavity→tongue/uvula/softpalate(velum)/hardpalate/teethridge(alveolus)

/teeth/lips

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet（IPA）

①diacritics附加符号

②broadtranscription（宽式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly

③narrowtranscription（严式标音）→thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics

ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds

①twobroadcategoriesofspeechsoundsinEnglish:Vowels/consonants

②twowaystoclassifytheEnglishconsonants:Intermsofmannerofarticulation

Intermsofplaceofarticulation

③Intermsofmannerofarticulation:

Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides

④Intermsofplaceofarticulation:

Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal

⑤

bilabialLabio-dentaldentalalveolarpalatalvelarglottal

stopsVLptk

VDbdg

fricativesVLfθs?h

VDvez?

affricatesVL(t?)t?

VD(d?)d?

nasalsVDmn?

liquidsVDl/r

glidesVDwj

ClassificationofEnglishvowels

⒈criteria:（monophthongs）单元音

Thepositionofthetongueinthemouth:front/central/back

Theopennessofthemouth:clovowels/mi-clovowels/mi-openvowels/openvowels

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Theshapeofthelips:unrounded/rounded

Thelengthofthevowels:ten/lax

frontcentralback

cloi:u:

iu

Semi-cloe?:

Semi-open

??:

open???

aa:

⒉diphthongs双元音

/ei/

/ai/

/au/

/?u/

/?i/

/i?/

/ε?/

/u?/

Phonology音韵学，语音体系

Differenceofphonologyandphonetics:

①Phoneticsisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsudinallhumanlanguages.

②Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesoundsare

udtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.

Phone（音素）:Aphoneisaphoneticunitorgment.

Phoneme（音位）:Itisaphonologicalunit;

isnotanyparticularsound,butratheritisreprentedorrealizedbyacertainphoneinacertainphonetic

context.

Allophone（音位变体）:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanreprentaphonemeindifferentphonetic

environmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.

Phonemiccontrast（音位对立）

Complementarydistribution（音位变体的互补分布）

Minimalpairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标

Minimalt（最小对立集）：isudtofindtheimportantsoundsinlanguage.

PhonologicalAnalysis（音位分析）

Principle:certainsoundscauchangesinthemeaningofawordorpha,whereasothersoundsdonot.

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Phoneticallysimilarsounds:描述音位关系

Freevariants:音位的自由变体

Thedifferenceofpronouncingasoundcaudbydialect,habit,individualdifferenceorregional

differencesinsteadofbyanydistributionrule.

Somerulesinphonology

①quentialrules:序列规则

Ifawordbeginswitha/l/ora/r/,thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel.

Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthree

rules:

Thefirstphonememustbe/s/

Thecondphonememustbe/p//t//k/

Thethirdphonememustbe/l//r//w/

②assimilationrule:同化规则

③deletionrule：省略规则

Supragmentalfeatures超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）

①stress（单词，句子层面）：thelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning.

Syllable音节：Asyllablenucleus(oftenavowel)withoptionalinitialandfinalmargins(often

consonants)

单音节词

多音节词

英语单词都有重读

音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

句子里读重音的词：

Nouns/mainverbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrativepronouns

②tone（词汇层面）

Englishisnotatonelanguage

Chineisatypicaltonelanguage:

Level/thecondri/thethirdfall-ri/thefourthfall

③intonation（句子层面）

Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:

Thefallingtone/therisingtone/thefall-ritone/theri-falltone

问题：

Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?

Speechandwriting

Speech

Becaufromthepointofviewoflinguisticevolution,tingsystemof

anylanguageisalways“invented”today’s

everyday

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communication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.

Spokenlanguagerevealsmoretruefeaturesofhumanspeechwhilewrittenlanguageisonlythe“revid”

guists’dataforinvestigationandanalysisaremostlydrawnfromeveryday

speech,whichtheyregardedasauthentic.

问题：

Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaud?

Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalled“voicing”,whichisafeatureof

allvowelsandsomeconsonantsinEnglish.

Chapter3Morphology词法形态学

1定义和知识点：

①thepartofthegrammarthatisconcernedwithwordformationandwordstructure

②thebranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsare

formed.

③itisntiallysynchronic,primarilyconcernedwiththeformsofwordsthroughtheuofmorpheme

construct.

④itoverlapswiththeothersub-branchesasawordisasoundunitthathasmeaningandsyntactic

function.

⑤fourfacets:

Sounds(phonology)

Constructions(syntax)

Meanings(mantics)

Formsofwords

2词性分类

①openclasswords:名、动、形、副arethecontentwordsofalanguage

②clodclasswords:连、介、冠、代aresmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded

3词素有关

?Morpheme:词素

构成单词的最小意义单位，包括声音和意义，abstractunits(任意性)

?Morph:形素

thesoundofamorpheme声音

?Allomorphs:语素变体

Thevariantformsofamorpheme

4分类morphemes

①Freemorpheme(自由词素):Amorphemewhichcanbeawordbyitlf

②boundmorpheme(粘着词素)：Amorphemethatmustbeattachedtoanotherone

③lexicalmorphemes/derivationalmorphemes(派生词素,包括前后缀):Theyareudtoderivenew

words,alsoknownasderivationalmorphemes

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④inflectionalmorphemes(屈折词素)：词类不发生变化

5单词定义：Word

Awordisaunitofexpressionwhichisintuitivelyrecognizedbynativespeakersinbothspokenand

writtenlanguage.

Awordisabasicandminimalunitsofalanguagetomakentences,whicharecombinationsofwords

accordingtosyntacticrules.

Awordisalexeme(词位).Alexemeisawordinanabstractn.

Awordcanbedefinedasagrammaticalunit.

6单词结构：Structure

Root:therootcon

belongtolexicalcategory.

Stem:itistheformofthewordtowhichbothinflectionalandderivationalmorphemescanbeadded.

Ba:词基

Affixes:theyarefor

themareboundmorphemesanddon’tbelongtoalexicalcategory.

7单词合成：Wordformation

①morphologicalrules→productivemorphologicalrules

②derivation

③compounds几点注意：

Whenthetwowordsareinthesamegrammaticalcategory,thecompoundwillbelikethis:n.+n./adj.+

adj.

Whenthetwowordsfallintodifferentcategories:n.+adj./v.+n.（不总是这样）

Themeaningofacompoundisnotalwaysthesumofthemeaningsofitsparts.

8单词合成过程：

①compounding

②affixationorderivation

Blends混合词

Abbreviation缩略语

③shorteningacronyms按音节拼读首字母的单词

Initials按字母拼读的单词

Clippings缩写词

④backformation逆构词法

9要点

Grammaticalmorphemesaregrammaticalinnature,functioningasgrammaticalmarkersorshow

syntacticrelations.

Theyconsistofbothinflectionalmorphemesandsomefreeoneslikein,and,do,they,while,where,but

andthat,whicharetraditionallyknownasfunctionalwords.

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Chapter4Syntax句法

1定义

Itisabranchoflinguisticsthatstudiestherulesthatgoverntheformationofntences.

2四大派别

①traditionalsyntax传统学派

②structuralsyntax结构主义学派（索绪尔）

③transformationalsyntax生成学派（乔姆斯基）（本书重点学习）

④functionalsyntax功能学派（哈里德）

3范畴Categories

Noun(N)

Verb(V)

Majorlexicalcategories

Adjective(A)

Preposition(P)

Word-levelcategories

Determiner(Det)限定词/成分

Degreewords(Deg)程度词

MinorlexicalcategoriesQualifier(Qual)修饰语

Auxiliary(Aux)助词

Conjunction(Con)连词

Syntacticcategories句法范畴的定义：

①Thefactthatwordsinallhumanlanguagescanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberof

class.

②注：Theword-levelcategoriesarethemostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudy.

Majorlexicalcategories(主要词汇范畴)playaveryimportantroleinntenceformationandtheyare

oftenassumedtobetheheadsaroundwhichphrasarebuilt.

Minorlexicalcategories(次要词汇范畴)

Meaning意义

Threecriteriatodetermineaword’scategoryinflection屈折变化

Distribution分布

?Itismisleadingtoassumethataword’scategorycanbetoldstraightforwardfromitsmeaning:

①nounsdonotconcretelyrevealtheirentities.

②somewordstendtobeverbsbuttheycanalsobeudasnouns.

③wordswiththesameorsimilarmeaningssometimesbelongtodifferentwordcategories.

Phrasaresyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategory.

↓

Thephraisbuiltaroundthewordcategory.

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↓

Thewordcategorydeterminesthecategoryofphra.

4要点

生成学派认为句子由短语构成。

短语→单词→词素→音节→

短语层面

任何短语都有2个层面

单词层面

5themostcommonlyrecognizedanddiscusdphrasalcategories:

NP:nounphra

VP:verbphra

AP:adjectivephra

PP:prepositionalphra

6theelementsofphrasthatareformedofmorethanoneword:

①head/termedhead中心语/中心成分:Thewordaroundwhichaphraisformed

②specifiers标志语/标志成分：Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheads

③complements补语/补足语/补足成分：Thewordsontherightsideoftheheads

7phrastructurerule短语结构规则

定义：Aspecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakesup

aphra.

ThephrastructureruleforNP,VP,AP,PP

NP→(Det)N(PP)…

VP→(Qual)V(NP)…

AP→(Deg)A(PP)…

PP→(Deg)P(NP)…

XPrule

公式一：XP→(specifier)X(complement)

X’Theory（X标杆理论）

①X’:Theintermediatelevelformedbytheheadandthecomplementbetweenwordleveland

phralevel.

②X’Theory:(specifier)X’(word)

X’=X(complement)

Coordinationrule(并列规则)

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Coordinatestructures(并列结构)

Coordination(并列，并列关系)

Fourimportantpropertiesofcoordination：

①thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.

②acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.

③coordinatedcategoriesmustbeofthesametype.

④thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeing

conjoined.

公式二：X→X*ConX（其中“*”代表无限的意思）

8Phraelements

Specifiershavebothspecialmanticandsyntacticroles.

①mantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecithemeaningofthehead.

②syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraboundary.

InEnglishspecifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephras.

Complementsarethemlvesphraandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoexistence

isimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.

ComplementsareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.

Subcategorization(次范畴化)：中心成分决定补充成分这种现象。

中心成分决定补充成分时，决定着是否需要补充成分，需要什么样的补充成分，以及补充成分的位

置问题。

TheXPRule(revid)

公式三：XP→(specifier)X(complement*)

Complementizers(Cs):补语化成分

Wordswhichintroducethentencecomplement

Complementclau:补语从句

Thentenceintroducedbythecomplementizer

Complementphra(CP):补语短语

Matrixclau主句

Modifiers修饰成分，修饰语

TheExpandedXPrule:

公式四：XP→(Spec)(Mod)X(Complement*)(Mod)

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TheSrule:S→NPVP

4种

短语

1种（句子为屈折短语）

10transformations（转换规则）

Yes-noquestion

Syntacticmovementwh-question

Passivevoice

Transformation/Inversion（倒置）定义:aspecialtypeofrulethatcanmoveanelementfromone

positiontoanother.

Inversion（倒置）：

MoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP

AllSsoccurwithinlargerCPs,whethertheyareembeddedornot.

Inversion(revid):

MoveInfltoC

Ifweassumethattherecanbeonlyoneelementineachpositioninatreestructure,complementizersand

auxiliariesaremutuallyexclusive.

Trace:用“e”表示

Headmovement中心语移位：Themovementofawordfromtheheadpositioninonephraintothe

headpositioninanother

Inversion→一般疑问句+显性助词

Doinrtion:

InrtinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition

11Twolevelsofsyntacticstructure

Deepstructure(D-structure):

ThestructureformedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssubcategorizationproperties

Surfacestructure(S-structure):

Thestructurecorrespondstothefinalsyntacticformofthentencewhichresultsfromappropriate

tansformations

★Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentofthegrammar

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TheXPRule

↓

Deepstructure(subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements)

↓

Transformations

↓

Surfacestructure

12WhMovement:

Movethewhphratothebeginningofthentence

WhMovement(revid)：

MoveawhphratothespecifierpositionunderCP

13Moveαandconstraintsontransformations

?neralruleisreferredtoasMoveα,where

“alpha”isacovertermforanyelementthatcanbemovedfromoneplacetoanother.

?onlycertaincategoriesaretargetedbymovementrules,andtherearelimitsonhowfarelementscan

bemoved.

①inversioncanmoveanauxiliaryfromtheInfltothenearestCposition.

②noelementmayberemovedfromacoordinatestructure.

Chapter5Semantics语义学

1语义学定义：

Semanticscanbesimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaning.

2Thenamingtheory(ancientGreekscholarPlato)

A→B

Thewordsudinalanguagearesimplylabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.

Limitations:

Thistheoryemsapplicabletonounsonly.

Abstractnotionscannotbedefinedbythistheory.

3Theconceptualistview(概念论)

Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.

Semantictriangle/triangleofsignificance(OgdenandRichards)1923年提出

Thought/reference

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Symbol/form……………………………...referent

4Contextualism语境论（——Britishlinguist）

Malinowski(Polishanthropologist)

Wittgenstein(Germanphilosopher)

Thecontextualistviewofmeaningisbadonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromor

reducemeaningtoobrvablecontexts.

Twokindsofcontext:

Thesituationalcontext

Thelinguisticcontext/co-text

Themaincomponentsofaparticularspatiotemporalsituation:

Theplace

Thetime

Thespeaker

Thehearer

Theactions

Thevariousobjectsandevents

Thelinguisticcontextisconcernedwiththeprobabilityofaword’sco-occurrenceorcollocationwith

anotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”oftheword,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedes

andfollowsaparticularutterance.

5Behaviorism行为主义论（AmericanBloomfield）

Thistheoryislinkedwithpsychologicalinterest.

刺激反应理论：

JillJack

S------------------r………..s-------------------R

6lexicalmeaning

Senandreference

Sen定义:

Itisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,thecollectionofallitsfeatures;itis

abstractandde-contextualized.(Dictionarycompilersareinterestedin)

每个单词都有它的意义（n）

Reference定义：

Itmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetween

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thelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.

不是所有单词都有语义（reference）

Majornrelations:

?synonymy同义关系synonyms

①dialectalsynonyms方言同义词（BritishEnglishandAmericanEnglish）

Girl------lass/lassie(Scottishdialect)

Liquor-------whiskey(Irishdialect)

BA

Autumnfall

Liftelevator

Luggagebaggage

Lorrytruck

Petrolgasoline

Flatapartment

Windscreenwindshield

Torchflashlight

②stylisticsynonyms

Wordshavingthesamemeaningmaydifferinstyle,ordegreeofformality

/daddy/dad/father/maleparent

Start/begin/commence

Kid/child/offspring

Kickthebucket/popoff/die/passaway/decea

③synonymsthatdifferintheiremotiveorevaluationmeaning

Collaborator/accomplice

④collocationalsynonyms短语同义词

Accu…of/charge…with/rebuke…for

Rottentomatoes/addledeggs/rancidbacon/sourmilk

⑤manticallydifferentsynonyms语义上不同的同义词

Amaze/astound

Drift/float

?polymy一词多义

?homonymy同音异义

①identicalinsound(homophones):Rain/reignnight/knightpiece/peaceleak/leek

②identicalinspelling(homographs):Bow/bowtear/tearlead/lead

③identicalinbothsoundandspelling(completehomonyms):Fast/fastscale/scale

?hyponymy下义关系

①Itreferstothenrelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.

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②superordinate上坐标词

③hyponyms下义词

④co-hyponyms共同下义词

:ro/tulip/carnation/lily/morningglory

Animal:dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bear

Furniture:bed/table/desk/dresr/wardrobe/ttee

?antonymy反义关系

①gradableantonyms等级反义词

②complementaryantonyms互补反义词（不能共存，非此即彼）

③relationalopposites反向反义关系（相反的两个极端但可共存）

7nrelationsbetweenntences

①XissynonymouswithY.(X真，Y真；X假，Y假)

②XisinconsistentwithY.(X真，Y假；X假，Y真)

③XentailsY.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y可真可假)

④XpresupposY.(X真，Y一定真；X假，Y仍为真)

⑤Xisacontradiction.(X永远假)

⑥Xismanticallyanomalous.语义破格句

8analysisofmeaning

?componentialanalysis----awaytoanalyzelexicalmeaning(成分分析)

Semanticfeatures语义特征：

Theword“man”compristhefeaturesof+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE

?predicationanalysis----awaytoanalyzentencemeaning(述谓结构分析)

Themeaningofantenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupthemeaningsofallitsconstituentwords.

Therearetwoaspectstontencemeaning

Grammaticalmeaning:grammaticalwell-formedness

Thegrammaticalityofantenceisgovernedbythegrammaticalrulesofthelanguage.

Semanticmeaning:

Whetherantenceismanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledlectionalrestrictions(选择

限制).(constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.)

注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比

Predicationanalysis:

.

Predication:itistheabstractionofthemeaningofantence.

Apredicationconsistsofargument(s)(变元)andpredicate(谓词)

(SMOKE)

KID,APPLE(LIKE)

(BEHOT)

(SNOW)

Argument(s)(变元)定义：

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Itisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwithanominalelementinantence.

Predicate(谓词)定义：

Itissomethingsaidaboutanargumentoritstatesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinantence.

Classificationofthepredicationaccordingtothenumberofargumentscontainedinapredication:

①two-placepredication

②one-placepredication

③no-placepredication

Chapter6Pragmatics语用学

Origin起源：

1938,AmericanphilosopherCharlesMorris

FoundationoftheTheoryofSigns

Semiotics:符号学ascienceofsigns

3branches:syntax/mantics/pragmatics

√Pragmatics定义：

Itisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageuntencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.

Astheprocessofcommunicationisntiallyaprocessofconveyingandunderstandingmeaningina

certaincontext,itcanalsoberegardedasakindofmeaningstudy.

Twomajortraditionsinthestudyofpragmatics:

①theAnglo-Americantradition:

Laymuchemphasisonthestudyofspecificlanguagephenomena

②theEuropeancontinentaltradition:

Itdoesnotidentifypragmaticswithaspecificunitofanalysis,buttakespragmaticstobeageneral

cognitive,social,andculturalperspectivesattheuoflanguage.

√ics

Whatesntiallydistinguishesmanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextof

notconsidered,thestudyisconfinedtotheareaoftraditionalmantics;ifitis

considered,thestudyisbeingcarriedoutintheareaofpragmatics.

Fiveconcepts:五个概念整理

√?context:

FirstnotedbyBritishlinguistJohnFirthinthe1930s

Itisntialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage

Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesharedbythespeaker

andthehearer.

Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledgehavebeenidentified.

Contextdeterminesthespeaker’suoflanguageandalsothehearer’s

interpretationofwhatissaidtohim.

Variouscomponentsofsharedknowledge:

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Knowledgeofthelanguagetheyu

Knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidbefore(属于linguisticcontext)

Knowledgeabouttheworldingeneral

Knowledgeaboutthespecificsituationinwhichlinguisticcommunicationistaking

place

Knowledgeabouteachother

√?ntencemeaning:

和?进行比较

Themeaningofantenceisoftenstudiedastheabstract,intrinsicpropertyofthe

ntenceitlfintermsofpredication.(abstract/decontextualized)

?ntence

Antenceisagrammaticalconcept.

√?utterancemeaning:

Concrete/context-dependent

?utterance

Anutterancecanbegrammaticallyacompletentenceorincompletentence.

注：themeaningofanutteranceisbadonntencemeaning.

Speechacttheory言语行为理论

理论基础：whenwearespeaking,weareperformingactions(doingsomething)

ItwasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnAustininthelate50softhe20thcentury.

Itisaphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.

Itaimstoanswerthequestion“whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”

Constatives:述事话语(表述句)定义

Theyarestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable.

Performatives:行事话语(施为句)定义

Theyarentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.

√Newmodel:threeactsAmericanphilosopher-linguistJohnSearle

①locutionaryact(言内行为)

Theactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexicon,andphonology

Theactofutteringwords,phras,andclaus

②illocutionaryact(言外行为)语言学家最感兴趣

Theactofexpressingthespeaker’sintention

Theactofperformedinsayingsomething

③perlocutionaryact(言后行为)主要与听话人有关

Theactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething

Itistheconquenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.

Itistheactperformedbysayingsomething.

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√Searle’sclassificationofspeechacts

Specificactsthatfallintothefivetypesharethesameillocutionarypoint,butdifferintheirstrength.

①reprentatives/asrtives(阐述类):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeaker

believestobetrue

②directives(指令类):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething

③commissives(承诺类)：committingthespeakerhimlftosomefuturecourof

action.

④expressives(表达类)：expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate

⑤declarations(宣告类)：bringingaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.

√Indirectspeechacts

√Whensomeoneisnotsayinginanexplicitandstraightforwardmannerwhathemeanstosay,ratherhis

istryingtoputacrosshismessageinanimplicit,roundaboutway,wecansayheisusingindirect

language.

Atraditionalwaytoexplainindirectlanguageuisbythemismatchbetweenthebasiclanguageforms

andtheirtypicalcommunicativefunctions.

Weknowofthereexistthreebasicntenceforms,thedeclarativentence,theimperativentence,

andtheinterrogativentence.

√Searlepropodthenotionofindirectspeechact,whichaimedtoexplainindirectlanguageinthelight

ofthespeechacttheory.

Primaryspeechact(主要言语行为)

Itisthespeaker’sgoalofcommunication

Secondaryspeechact(次要言语行为)

Itisthemeansbywhichheachieveshisgoal

Therelationbetweenthecondaryspeechactandtheprimaryoneisthatbetweenmeansandend.

Therecognitionoftherealpurpoofthespeakerthroughwanthesaysisachievedthroughinferences

madebythehearerbadonhisgeneralknowledgeandalsohisknowledgeofsomepragmatictheories

andprinciples.

√Principleofconversation会话原则=cooperativeprinciple(CP)合作原则

Aphilosopherandlogician,PaulGricespecifiedtwokindsofimpliedmeaningorimplicature

①conventionalimplicature(规约含义)

Badontheconventionalmeaningofcertainwordsinthelanguage

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②non-conventionalimplicature（非规约含义）

主要是particularizedconversationalimplicature(特定语境下的会话含义）

InGrice’sview,toconverwitheachother,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.

Grice’soriginalwording:

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheaccepted

purpoordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.

Fourmaxims

Themaximofquantity数量原则（不多不少）

Themaximofquality质量准则

Themaximofrelation关系原则

Themaximofmanner方式准则

Threewaysofviolatingthefourmaxim:

Thespeakerwantstomisleadthehearer.

Thespeakerdoesnotpossstheadequateamountofinformationheixpectedtoprovide.

Thespeakersimplydoesnotwanttogoonwiththeconversation.

Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.

Cross-culturalpragmaticfailure

Pragmaticfailure:

Whenthespeakerfailstoulanguageeffectivelytoachieveaspecificcommunicativepurpo

Whenthehearerfailstorecognizetheintention

Whenthehearerfailstorecognizetheillocutionaryforceofthespeaker’sutteranceinthecontextof

communication.

Pragmaticfailuremayoccurbothinintra-culturalcommunicationandincross-culturalcommunication.

Twodimensionsofpragmatics

Pragmalinguistics(语用语言学)

Itisappliedtothemorelinguisticendofpragmatics/howthelinguisticformsofalanguageareudto

rvespecificpragmaticpurpos.

Sociopragmatics(社会语用学)

Itisthesociologicalinterfaceofpragmaticsandisconcernedwiththecustomarywaysinwhichpeopleof

aparticularculturebehavetoachieveaparticularpurpo.