distinctions

geandLinguistics

edesignfeaturesoflanguage?(P2-P12)

geissystematic

geissymbolic

geisarbitrary

geisprimarilyvocal

geishumanspecific

geisudforcommunication

egeneralfunctionsoflanguage?Pleaillustrateyourpointwithexamples.

(P14-P17)

logicalfunction

function

ingfunction

fyingfunction

icatingfunction

refunction

ingfunction

ctionsbetweenLangueandParole(P29)

langueparole

theabstractsystem

acollectivebodyofknowledge

akindofcommonreferencemanual

acquiredbyallmembersofacommunityof

speakers.

theparticularactualitiesofindividual

utterance

thecontingentexecutivesideofthings

therelativelysuperficialbehavioralreflexes

ofknowledge

theuoflanguageofutterances.

ctionsbetweensynchronicanddiachronic(P30)

chronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofthehistoricaldevelopmentofa

language.

chronicstudyreferstothedescriptionofaparticularstateofalanguageata

cessaryforthesynchronicdescriptiontofindoutthe

systematicrulesastheyoperateinthelanguageataparticulartime.

ctionsbetweencompetenceandperformance(P33)

encereferstotheknowthatnativespeakershaveoftheirlanguageassystemof

abstractformalrelations.

mancereferstowhatwedowhenwespeakorlisten,thatis,theinfinitevaried

individualactsofverbalbehaviorwiththeirirregularities,inconsistences,anderrors.

icsandPhonology

phoneticsanditsthreesubdivisions?(P43)

icsisthescientificstudyofspeechandisconcernedwithdefiningand

classifyingspeechsounds.

latoryphonetics

Acousticphonetics

Auditoryphonetics

ctionsamongbilabial,dental,alveolar,labiodental,velarsounds.(P47-P49)

alarearticulationsmadewiththeupperandlowerlipsbroughttogether.

/p/,/b/,/m/.

sareproducedbythefrontofthetonguetouchingthebackoftheupperfront

→/ð/,/ø/.

entalsarearticulationsproducedwiththelowerlipapproximatingtothe

undersideoftheupperfrontteeth./f/,/v/.

arsaresoundsproducedbythetipand/orbladeofthetonguetouchingornearly

touchingthegumridgebehindtheupperteeth./t/,/d/,/n/,/s/,/z/,/l/.

oundsareproducedwiththebackofthetonguedorsumraiduptothesoft

palate(orvelum)atthebackofthemouth./k/,/g/,/w/.

phonology?(P56)

Phonologyisthestudyofthesoundpatternsinhumanlanguage.(Thetermphonologyis

udintwoways,eitherasthestudyofthesoundpatternsinlanguageorasthesound

patternsofalanguage.)

ctionsbetweenphonemes(P56)andallophones(P58).

mentsofanunderlyingreprentationarecalledphonemes.

Phonemeistheminimumphoneticunitthatisnotfurtheranalyzableintosmallerunits.

Phonemeistheabstracttofunitsasthebasisofourspeech.

Phonemesaresaidtobethedistinctivesounds.

Aphonememayhaveitsvariants.

sonlyonephonemebetweentwowordsanditturnsupintwovariantformsin

honeticsvariantsofphonemearecalledallophones.

eminimalpairs?(P58)

fphonemesisalsoknownasaminimalpair.

odifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundgmentthat

occursinthesameplaceinthestring,thetwowordsarecalledminimalpairs.

ecomponentsofasyllable?(P66)

Structurally,thesyllablemaybedividedintothreeparts:theont,thepeak,thecoda.

logyandLexicon

morphology?(P73)

Morphologystudiesmorphemesandtheirdifferentformsandthewaytheycombineinword

formation.

ctionsbetweenword(P74)/morpheme(P81)/lexeme(P91).

thesmallestformthatcanoccurbyitlf.(“aminimumfreeform”—Bloomfield)

Awordisasoundorcombinationofsoundswhichweproducevoluntarilywithourvocal

equipment.

Awordissymbolic,dsforsomethingel,suchasobjects,happenings,or

ideas.

Wordsarepartofthelargecommunicationsystemwecalllanguage.

Wordshelphumanbeingsinteractculturallywithoneanother.

emeisasmallestlinguisticunitthatcarriesgrammaticaland/ormantic

ansitcannotbefurtherdividedintosmallergrammaticalunits.

Amorphememayundergocertainphoneticchangeswhencombinedwiththeba

word.

eisreferredtothesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbe

distinguishedfromothersmallerunits.

Alexemeisanabstractunitandmayoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenor

writtentexts.

Collocationisanimportantfeatureinthecombinationoflexemes.

eopen-classwords?(P79)

Wecanaddnewwordstotheclassofnouns,verbs,adjectives,andadverbs.

eclod-classwords?(P79)

Itisnoteasytothinkofnewpronouns,determiners,conjunctions,orprepositionsthatenter

thelanguagerecently.

ctionsbetweenboundmorphemeandfreemorpheme.(p83)

phemecanconstituteawordbyitlf,itiscalledafreemorpheme,likeroom,

bottle,stand,large.

phemehasmeaningonlyconnectedwithatleastanothermorpheme,itiscalled

boundmorpheme,likeun-inunlucky,andtheplural–sinbags.

Aboundmorphemeisalsocalledanaffixinthenthatitisalwaysaddedtoanother

anbedividedintoprefixes,suffixesandinfixes.

ctionsbetweeninflectionalmorphemeandderivativemorpheme(P84)

orphemescanbedividedintotwotypesaccordingtowhethertheyprovidethe

lexicalitemtowhichtheyareaddedanyfurthergrammaticalmeaningand/orlexical

meaning.

ectionalmorphemeprovidesfurthergrammaticalinformationaboutanexisting

somefewirregularpluralscanweidentifytheexistenceofinfixes.

akethe

formofaprefixorasuffix.

ctionsbetweenprefixesandsuffixes.(P83)

xisonethataddedtothebeginnerofthestem,likeun-inunlucky,in-in

inappropriate,dis-indisorder.

lyadd

somelexicalmeaningstothestem.

xisonethatisaddedtotheendofthestem,like–inginwaiting,-fulinuful,

-lessinmeaningless.

Mostsuffixeshavetwofunctions:(1)toaddsomegrammaticalmeaningstothestemor

(2)tochangeitsgrammaticalcategories.

Sometimessuffixesdonotchangethegrammaticalcategoriesofthestem.

emajorprocessofword-formation?Giveeachoneortwoexamples.(P86)

nding(referstotheprocessofconjoiningtwoormorefreemorphemesto

wordformiscalledacompound.

n,Sunday,Monday.

avery,deprogram,disapprove,robotics.

sioni.e.n.→→toelbow

v.→t→doubt

adj./adv.→→todry

adj.→→twonatives

e→bike

gymnasium→gym

omnibus→bus

UN

WTO

t←audition

todonate←donation

toenthu←enthusiasm

lker,software,internet

iger,moonri,coldwar

econstituentsinsyntacticanalysis?(P98)

Constituentsarestructuralunits,guisticform,suchaswordsorwordgroups.

Whenconstituentsareconsideredaspartofthesuccessiveunravelingofantence,they

areknownasitsimmediateconstituents.

immediateConstituentAnalysis?(P98)

Thegmentationofthentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttings

untilitsultimateconstituentsareobtainedisanimportantapproachedtotherealizationof

thenatureoflanguage,calledImmediateConstituentAnalysis(ICAnalysis).Theanalysiscan

becarriedoutinwaysoftreediagrams,bracketing,oranyother.

ingtotheirstructuresandforms,whataremajortypesofEnglishntences?

Accordingtotheirstructuresandforms,ntencescanbedividedintosimplentences,

coordinatentences,andcomplexntences.(P100)

entenceisagroupofwordswhichexpressasingleindependentthought.

inatentenceorcompoundntenceisagroupofwordswhichexpresstwo

ormoreconnectedandcoordinatethoughts.

exntenceisagroupofwordswhichexpresstwoormoreunifiedthoughts,

oneofwhichisthemainorprinciplethoughtdependentonitoneormoresubordinate

thoughts.

ingtofunctionalapproach,whataremajortypesofEnglishntences?Listthem

withexamples.(P101)

ative

PaulinegaveMaryadigitalwatchforherbirthday.

ogative

DidPaulinegiveTomadigitalwatchforhisbirthday?

tive

Givemeadigitalwatchformybirthday.

atory

Whatafinewatchhereceivedforhisbirthday!

ics

manticfield?(P134)

Semanticfieldreferstotheorganizationofrelatedlexemesintoasystemwhichshowstheir

relationshiptooneanother.

ctionsbetweenconceptualmeaningandassociativemeaning.(P126)

tualmeaningreferstothedefinitiongiveninthedictionary.

Itiswidelyassumedtobethecentralfactorinlinguisticcommunicationandisintegralto

theesntialfunctioningoflanguage.

ativemeaningreferstothemeaningassociatedwiththeconceptualmeaning,

whichcanbefurtherdividedintofollowingfivetypes:

Connotativemeaning

Socialmeaning

Affectivemeaning

Reflectedmeaning

Collocativemeaning

ctionsamongsynonymy(P136),antonym(P138),meronymy(P140),hyponymy

(P140).

rexpressionswiththesameorsimilarmeaningaresaidtobesynonymous.

Synonymsarewordsorexpressionsthatsharecommonmanticfeatures.

Synonymscanbeudasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionscoherent,varied

and/ormorecolorful.

myistherelationshipofoppositenessofmeaning.

Antonymscanbeudasarhetoricaldevicetomaketheexpressionsmorecontrastive

andimpressive.

myisatermudtodescribeapart-wholerelationshipbetweenlexicalitems.

Meronymyreflectshierarchicalclassificationsinthelexicon.

myisudtorefertoaspecific-generalmanticrelationshipbetweenlexical

items.

my

myisalwaystransitiveinthenthat

rast,meronymymayor

myandhyponymyareimportantroutesofmantic

myandhyponymyare

amongthewidelyudrhetoricaldevicestomaketheexpressionsmorevariedand

colorful.

ctionsbetweenntencemeaningandutterancemeaning(P132)

cemeaningisdirectlypredictablefromthegrammaticalmeaningandutterance

featuresofthentence.

etodependon

variouscontextualfactorstocomprehendtheutterancemeaning.

ctionsbetweenlexicalmeaningandgrammaticalmeaning.(P130)

lmeaningixpresdbytho“meaningful”partsofspeech,,

adjectives,andadverbs,andisgiveninthedictionary.

ticalmeaningixpresdbysuchsyntacticcategoriesasthedistinction

betweenthesubjectandtheobjectofantence,oppositionsofdefiniteness,tenand

number,andfunctionwordsandintonation.

almeaningconstitutethelinguisticmeanings,al

meaningofourutteranceconsistsalwaysofthelinguisticmeaningsplusthe

social-culturalmeanings.

ticsandTextAnalysis

thecooperativeprinciple?Pleagivesomeexamplesfloutingthefourmaxims

whichmaycautheconversationalimplicature.(P169)

ingtothecooperativeprinciple,theparticipantsinaconversationnormally

communicateinamaximallyefficient,ouldspeak

sincerely,relevantly,andclearly,whileprovidingsufficientinformation.

imofquality

imofquantity

imofrelevance

imofmanner

fythecohesiveties(grammaticaldevicesorlexicalones)inadiscour.如课后练习

会找出语篇中的衔接手段(P184)

geandSocialCulture

dialect?(P204)(regional(P206),social(P207),ethnic(P209))

treferstoanyregional,social,orethicvarietyofalanguage.

Thedialectsofasinglelanguagemaybedefinedasmutuallyintelligibleformsofa

languagethatdifferinsystematicwaysfromeachother.

aldialectreferstothelanguagevarietyudinageographicalregion.

dialectisudtodescribedifferencesinspeechassociatedwithvarioussocial

groupsorclass.

varietiesareudbyethnicgroupsandregardedassocialdialect.

esofBlackEnglish.(P210)

antdeletionruleisud.

ax,thefrequentabnceofvariousformsof“be”isoneofitsprominentsyntactic

features.

rsyntacticfeatureofblackEnglishisthesystematicuoftheexpression“itis”

whereStandardEnglishus“thereis”inthenof“thereexists”.

rsyntacticalfeatureofblackEnglishistheuofdoublenegationconstructions.

ofmeaning(P219)andsyntacticalchange(P222)inlanguagechangeprocess.

oductiveasawayenlargingthevocabularythanborrowingandcreatingnew

wordsfromnativeelementsixpandingthemeaningofwordthatalreadyexistsinthe

language.(byamelioration;theoppositeofamelioration;throughgeneralization;through

specializationandrefertoasmallerclassofobjects;throughallofthe.)

fferencesbetweenthentencestructuresinOldEnglishandthoinModern

Englishinvolvewordorder.(thelossofalargenumberofinflectionalaffixesfrommany

partofspeech;theloss,theaddition,andthemodificationofrules;thesyntactic

behaviorofauxiliaryverbsandnegation.)

geAcquisitionandThought

identifytwomajorcausforlearners’errorsincondorforeignlanguage

learning?Pleaillustratewithexampleswhennecessary.(P271)

ingualtransfer.

ingualtransfer

ethreemajorsyllabusforforeignlanguageteaching?(classificationand

definition)(P254—P257)

ticalsyllabustakesgrammarasthebasisfor(foreign)

advocatesofthissyllabus,grammarisprimaryinthestudyofaforeignlanguage,andthe

studyofgrammarisnotonlybeneficialtothelearner’scomprehensionandtranslation

ofthetargetlanguagebutalsotothedevelopmentofthelearner’sintelligence.

ionalsyllabusreferstoasyllabusinwhichtheinstructionoflanguageteachingis

plannedaroundthesituationsinwhichthelinguisticformstobetaughtarenormally

ociolinguisticsasitstheoreticalbasis.

icativesyllabusfocuslanguageteachingonthedevelopmentofthelearner’s

municativesyllabusisbadontheassumption

thatlanguageisudforcommunication,andthatlearningalanguageislearningto

communicate.