expectation

ancyTheory

ExpectancyTheoryOverview

idesanexplanation

ofwhyindividualschooonebehavioraloptionoverothers."Thebasicideabehindthetheory

isthatpeoplewillbemotivatedbecautheybelievethattheirdecisionwillleadtotheir

desiredoutcome"(Redmond,2009)."Expectancytheoryproposthatworkmotivationis

dependentupontheperceivedassociationbetweenperformanceandoutcomesand

individualsmodifytheirbehaviorbadontheircalculationofanticipatedoutcomes"(Chen&

Fang,2008).Thishasapracticalandpositivebenefitofimprovingmotivationbecauitcan,

andhas,helpedleaderscreatemotivationalprogramsintheworkplace."Thistheoryisbuilt

upontheideathatmotivationcomesfromapersonbelievingtheywillgetwhattheywantinthe

ghthetheoryisnot"allinclusive"ofindividual

motivationfactors,itprovidesleaderswithafoundationonwhichtobuildabetter

understandingofwaystomotivatesubordinates"(AETC,2008).Expectancytheoryis

classifiedasaprocesstheoryofmotivationbecauitemphasizesindividualperceptionsof

theenvironment,andsubquentinteractionsarisingasaconquenceofpersonal

expectations.

Thetheorystatesthatindividualshavedifferenttsofgoalsandcanbemotivatedifthey

believethat:

Thereisapositivecorrelationbetweeneffortsandperformance.

Favorableperformancewillresultinadesirablereward.

Therewardwillsatisfyanimportantneed.

Thedesiretosatisfytheneedisstrongenoughtomaketheeffortworthwhile(Lawler,

Porter.L.,Vroom,2009).

Vroom'sExpectancyTheory

,Professor,YaleUniversity

,aninternational

amedtotheoriginalboardofofficersof

asfocudmuchofhis

rhemost

influentialbooksonthesubjectofmotivationwaswrittenbyVroomin1964,calledWorkand

ervedasaconsultanttoanumberofgovernmentagencies,aswellas

morethan100majorcorporationsworldwide,includingGeneralElectricandAmerican

rrentlyaprofessorintheYaleSchoolofManagementatYaleUniversity.

Vroom'orysuggests

thatanindividual'

assumesthatthechoicesbeingmadearetomaximizepleasureandminimizepain,asalso

enintheLawofEffect,"oneoftheprinciplesofreinforcementtheorywhichstatesthat

peopleengageinbehaviorsthathavepleasantoutcomesandavoidbehaviorsthathave

unpleasantoutcomes"(Thorndike,1913).Hesuggeststhatpriorbeliefoftherelationship

betweenpeople'dualfactors

includingskills,knowledge,experience,personalityandabilitiescanallhaveanimpactonan

employee'sperformance.

VroomtheorizedthatthesourceofmotivationinExpectancyTheoryisa"multiplicative

functionofvalence,instrumentalityandexpectancy."(Stecher&Ros,2007)Hesuggested

that"peopleconsciouslychoaparticularcourofaction,baduponperceptions,attitudes,

andbeliefsasaconquenceoftheirdesirestoenhancepleasureandavoidpain"(Vroom,

1964).

Vroom'sExpectancyTheoryisbadonthethreecomponents:

Expectancy:

Expectancycanbedescribedasthebeliefthathigherorincreadeffortwillyield

nbeexplainedbythethinkingof"IfIworkharder,Iwill

makesomethingbetter".

Somethingsthathelpexpectancyarehavingthecorrectresourcesavailable,having

therightskilltforthejobathand,andhavingtherightsupporttogetthejobdone

correctly.

Instrumentality:

Instrumentalitycanbedescribedasthethoughtthatifanindividualperformswell,

ingsthathelp

instrumentalityarehavingaclearunderstandingoftherelationshipbetween

performanceandtheoutcomes,havingtrustandrespectforpeoplewhomakethe

decisionsonwhogetswhatreward,andeingtransparencyintheprocessofwho

getswhatreward.

Valence:

Valencemeans"value"andreferstobeliefsaboutoutcomedesirability(Redmond,

2010).Thereareindividualdifferencesinthelevelofvalueassociatedwithany

tance,abonusmaynotincreamotivationforanemployee

whoismotivatedbyformalrecognitionorbyincreadstatussuchaspromotion.

Valencecanbethoughtofasthepressureorimportancethatapersonputsonan

expectedoutcome.

Vroomconcludesthattheforceofmotivationinanemployeecanbecalculatedusingthe

formula:Motivation=Valence*Expectancy*Instrumentality

ScaffoldinguponsomeofVroom'soriginalwork,PorterandLawlerdevelopedatheoretical

modelsuggestingthattheexpenditureoranindividual'nergyoreffortswillbedeterminedby

thelevelofexpectationsthataspecificoutcomemaybeobtainedandthedegreetowhichthat

outcomeisvaluedbysomeone(Pinder,1984).Thistheorybecameknownaxpectancy

theory,orVIEtheory(valence,instrumentality,andexpectancy).Thefollowinginformationis

concernedwithexploringthecomponentsofexpectancytheory,analyzingtherearch

dedicatedtothetheory,identifyingstrengthsandweakness,anddiscussingthefactorsthat

beexaminedtodemonstratethe

theelementswillbe

instrumentalinbetterunderstandingoneofthemorepopulartheoriesforexplainingand

influencingmotivationalbehavior,particularlyintheworkplace.

Vroomalsobelievedthatincreadeffortwillleadtoincreadperformance,giventheperson

ectedoutcomeisdependentuponwhetheror

notthepersonhastherightresourcestogetthejobdone,havetherightskillstodothetaskat

hand,pportmaycomefromthe

boss,orjustbeinggiventherightinformationortoolstofinishthejob.

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ExpectancyTheoryComponents

ExpectancyTheoryhasthreemajorcomponents:expectancy,instrumentality,andvalence.

grambelowshows

therelationshipofeachcomponent.

(Swenson,dateunknown)

Expectancy

rforapersontobeproperly

motivated,thatindividualneedstoperceivethattheirpersonalexpenditureofeffortwillresult

tosaythatinorderforapersontobemotivated

toexertefforttheyneedtobelievethattheireffortwillresultinacertainlevelofperformance,

orthatacertainlevelofperformanceisattainable."Therelationshipbetweeneffortand

performanceisknownastheE-Plinkage"(Isaac,2001)."Theexpectancycomponentof

expectancytheoryisthebeliefthatone'ffort(E),willgivetheexpectedperformance(P)

goal"(Scholl,2002).Anexamplewouldbe,"IfIsaltthesidewalk,willitbesafertowalk

on?"Therearevariablesthataffectanindividual'ariables

includelf-efficacy(aperson'sbeliefintheirabilitytoperformsuccessfully),goaldifficultyand

control(doesthepersonactuallyhavecontrolovertheexpectedoutcome).

BecauVIETheoryinvolvesperceptionsandexpectancyisabeliefaboutthefuturerather

thanaconcreteexistenceintheenvironment,peoples’beliefscanvarygreatly(Redmond,

2010).Thismeansthatwhileonepersonperceivestheireffortstoleadtoagreat

accomplishment,anotherpersonmaybelievetheirsameeffortwillnotleadtomuch

torsthat

canaffectexpectancyareabilityandinterest(Redmond,2010)."Lackofabilityorinterestwill

decreaaperson’opertrainingandahighinterestlevel,peoplewill

ers,forexample,needtokeepthisinmindas

uragingemployeesandbuilding

lf-efficacy,managerscanincreaemployeeexpectancy"(Redmond,2010).

Keyquestiontoasktodetermineexpectancy:

WhatisthestrengthoftherelationshipbetweentheeffortIputforthandhowwellIperform?

Examplesofdeterminationsofexpectancy(Scholl,2002):

IfIspendmostoftonightstudyingwillitimprovemygradeontomorrow'smathexam?

IfIworkharderthaneveryoneelintheplantwillIproducemore?

IfIpracticemyfoulshotmorewillmyfoulshootingimproveinthegame?

IfImakemoresalescallswillImakeanymoresales?

Thefollowingvideoisahumorousvideoonexpectancytheoryandmotivation.

CLICKHEREtowatchahumorousvideoonEXPECTANCYTHEORYand

MOTIVATION

Thisvideoisascholarlyvideothatislesshumorousvideobuthasagreatinsightand

prentationontheexpectancytheory.

CLICKHEREtowatchascholarlyprentationon

ExpectancyTheory

Instrumentality

Insmentality

isrwords,

aperson'sbeliefthatagivenoutputwillfacilitateagivenreward(outcome).Apersonwillonly

performatacertainleveliftheybelievethattheperformancewillleadtoagivenexpresd

ationshipisreprentedbytheP-Olinkage(Isaac,2001).The

instrumentalitycomponentofexpectancytheoryistheperson'sbeliefthatiftheycanmeet

performanceexpectations,theywillreceive"agreatreward"(Scholl,2002).Anexampleof

instrumentalityofexpectancytheorywouldbe,"IfIcompletemoreworkthananyoneel,willI

getapromotionbeforetheydo?"Thevariablesaffectinginstrumentalityaretrust(inleaders),

control,andpolicies(howformalizedarerewardssystemsinwrittenpolicies?)(Scholl,2002).

Somethingisconsideredtobeinstrumentalifitisconditionaluponsomethingel,oris

believedtodirectlyresultintoaparticularoutcome(Redmond,2010).Rememberingtheidea

ofperceptionsandbeliefs,whatpeoplebelievetobeanoutcomemaynotbetheactual

outcomeresultingfromtheirperformance."Ifpeopledonoteaconnectionbetweentheir

performancelevelandapossibleoutcome,theyarelesslikelytobemotivated"(Redmond,

2010).

Keyquestiontoasktodetermineinstrumentality:

WhatisthestrengthoftherelationshipbetweenthethingsIdoandtherewardsIgetfrommy

actions?

Examplesofdeterminationsofinstrumentality(Scholl,2002):

IfIgetabettergradeontomorrow'smathtestwillIgetan"A"inmath?

IfIproducemorethananyoneelintheplant,willIgetabiggerrai?Afaster

promotion?

IfmyfoulshootingimproveswillIhaveashotateamMVP?

IfImakemoresaleswillIgetabonus?Agreatercommission?

IfImakemoresaleswillIbelievethatIamthebestsalespersonorberecognizedby

othersasthebestsalesperson?

Valence

eischaracterizedbytheextenttowhich

“value”ue

apersonplacesonanoutcomeisdirectlyrelatedtowhotheyareandtheirneeds,goals,and

bjectivevalueisbadontheindividual'sperceptions,attitudes,and

beliefs."Thelevelatwhichanindividualvaluesanoutcomeisdescribedasit'svalence"

(Gerhart,Minkoff,Oln,1995).

Keyquestiontoasktodeterminevalence:

HowvaluabledoIperceivethepotentialreward(s)tobe?

Examplesofdeterminationsofvalence(Scholl,2002):

HowmuchIreallywantan"A"inmath?

DoIwantabiggerrai?Isitworththeextraeffort?DoIwantapromotion?

HowimportanttomeisittobeteamMVP?

DoIneedasalesbonus?IstheextratimeIspendmakingextrasalescallsworththe

extracommission?

IsitimportanttomethatIamthebestsalesperson?

Itisimportanttonotethatvalenceisnottheactuallevelofsatisfactionthatanindividual

receivesfromanoutcome,butratheritistheEXPECTEDsatisfactionapersonreceivesfrom

aparticularoutcome(Redmond,2010).

Expectancytheoryor"VIEtheory"isbadonthepremithatmotivationoccurswhenthree

specificconditionsaresatisfied:effort,fmotivationasa

chainwhereeachlinkreprentsacondition,andtheinterctionofeachlinkreprentits

components:expectancy,instrumentality,thechain,apersonexpects

theirefforttoresultinsomelevelofperformance(expectancy).Theperceivedorexpected

outcomeoftheirperformancelevelwillbeconsideredinstrumentaltotheoutcome

(instrumentality).Finally,apersonwillplacesubjectivevalueontheirbeliefaboutthe

outcome(valence).Thisvaluewilldeterminehowsatisfactorytheoutcomeistothem.

MotivationalForce

Whenexpectancy,instrumentalityandvalencearemet,a“motivationalforce”

gertheforce,themore

apersonwillbemotivatedtoobtaintheoutcomesofthejob(Redmond,2010).Inorderfor

motivationalforcetobehigh,valence,

anyoneofthoislow,motivationwillbelow(Redmond,2009).

Forexample,"ifapersonisindifferenttotheoutcomesorperceivesthemasnegativelyvalent,

thereisnoreasontoworkhardtoattainthem"(Redmond,2010).Therefore,sincevalenceis

negativeorlow,haction,expectancy,

instrumentalityandvalencecanbeassdandamotivationalforcecomputed(Redmond,

2010).

Amongthemanyfactorsthatinfluenceexpectancy,suchasabilityorinterest,perceptionis

tionistheenginethatdrivesthebeliefofeffort,

,ifanyoneconditionisperceivedthatitwillbelow,

ebeliefscan

varyhowever,asubjectiveprobabilityformulathatismultiplicativeinnatureisudtomore

accuratelymeasureexpectancyandarriveatapredictedmotivationalforce(reprentedasa

number).Thehigherthenumber,thehigherthemotivation,witheachcomponenthavingits

ownprobabilityrange.

TheVIEformulaisreprented(withinarange)asMF=E(VxI)[3]

TherangeisreprentedinTable1below:

Table1:VIERanges

ComponentRangeRangeDefinition

Expectancy0to10=beliefshecouldnotperformsuccessfully

1=firmbeliefshecouldperformsuccessfully

Instrumentality0to10=norelationshipbetweenperformanceandoutcome

1=outcomedependentonperformance

Valence-1to+1-=avoidanceofoutcome

0=indifference

+=expectedoutcomewouldbesatisfactory

Amotivatedemployeeisthustheproductoftheperceivedlevelofsatisfaction,the

confidencetoachieve,andtherewardsthattheemployeehopestoreceiveon

rwords,valence*expectancy*instrumentality=

motivation(Iyer,2009).

Expectancyisaperson'

whodesiretherewardsthatmanagementixpectedtobestowuponthem,onaccountof

superiorperformance,

employeewhoisnotpositivelyorientedwithrespecttotheperceivedconquencesofthe

attainmentofgoals,eesshouldfeelthattheeffortsthat

he/timatelyaquestionof

-proclaimedachievermaybeimmenly

confidentoftheabilitytoperformastoundinglyhigh,whileaskepticmayhaveanentirely

oyeewhofeelsthattheeffortswillnotyieldthedesiredresults,

intermsofachievingthettargets,ilityof

lanemployeescoresonthisscaleof

confidencewillhaveadirectbearingontheemployee'slevelofmotivation(Iyer,2009).

*MotivationalForce(MF)=ExpectancyxInstrumentalityxValance

Whendecidingamongbehavioraloptionsindividualslecttheoptionwiththegreatest

motivationalforces(MF).

IntermsoftheaboveMotivationalForceequation,whenanyoneoftheproductsarezero

sondoesnothaveoneofthethreeproducts,

thenoverallmotivationislacking.

Let'sconsiderthefollowingexample:

Example

1

SalesDepartmentExample

Let'sconsideroneinitiativetomotivatestaff,theofferofpromotionwithinasales

memberofstaffthisisahighly

attractive(Valence=+0.9),buttheirportfolioofclientsandpastperformance

meanstheyperceiveachievementoftheoutcome,estarget,almost

impossible(Expectancy=0.1).Byapplyingtheformulaweethatthemotivational

forcewillbe:

F=VxE

F=0.9x0.1=0.09

Alternatively,anothermemberofstafffindsthepossibilityofpromotionreasonably

attractive(Valence=+0.6),andbadontheirportfolioofclients,andpastsales

performance,theyfeelreasonablyconfidentthattheywillachievethesalestarget

t(Expectancy=0.8).Hereweethatthemotivationalforceisfarstrongerin

comparison:

F=VxE

F=0.6x0.8=0.48

ExampleSource:

/business/resources/studyroom/people_and_organisations/motivat

ion_theory/

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RearchonExpectancyTheory

"SinceitisapopularmotivationaltheoryinI/OPsychology,manystudieshavebeen

conductedintheUnitedStates,aswellasothercountries"(Matsui&Terai,1975),totestthe

efficacyoftheexpectancytheoryusingbetween-subjectsdesignandwithin-subjects

een-subjectsdesignstudies,groupsofpeopleareaskedquestionsabouttheir

expectancies,instrumentalitiesandvalenceswithamotivationalforcescorecomputedfor

ivationalforcescoreiscombinedwithperformanceratingsgivenby

supervisorsforatotalforcescore."Thistypeofstudydistinguishesbetweenthemost

motivated,andtheleastmotivatedemployees"(Redmond,2009).

Within-subjectsdesign,bycontrast,studieshowoneindividualismotivatedbydifferent

study,apersonisgivendifferenttasksandisprovidedaforcescoreforeachto

eVroomdevelopedthe

expectancytheorytoaccountforvaryingmotivationacrosstasks,thewithin-subjectsdesign

studiesareconsideredbettersuitedfortestingthetheory(Redmond,2009).Foreachperson,

acorrelationiscomputedbetweenpredictionsofeffortmadebythetheoryandactualamounts

ofeffortexpendedontasks(Redmond,2009).

Fromtherearchthathasbeenconductedtotestthetheory,overallresultssuggestthatthe

theorycanbeufulasapredictorofthechoicespeoplewillmakewhengivendifferenttasks,

ongestsupportinfavorofthis

rearchwasshownforvalence,instrumentality,andexpectancyasindividualcomponents,

whichshowedhighercorrelationsandpredictionsresultingforwithin-subjectdesignstudies,

ratherthanthemotivationalforcescoreorthetotalforcescore(Redmond,2009).

JayCaulfield,fromMarquetteUniversity,udexpectancytheoryasaframeworkforhis

udywastoinvestigatethemotivationalfactorsthatmaycontributeto

studentsprovidinganonymousfeedbacktoteachers.“Expectancytheoryhasbeenmore

effectiveinpredictingmotivationwhenthesubjectbeingstudiedhadmorediscretionin

performingatask”(Caulfield,2007).Sincetheevaluationprocessiscompletelyanonymous,

itmakesnthatexpectancytheoryisagoodchoiceforpredictingstudent’smotivationfor

poofusingVroom’xpectancytheory

now,wastodeterminetheoutcomethestudentsbelievedwouldbeattainedbyproviding

theevaluations(Caulfield,2007).Theresultsofthestudyindicatedthat“students’

motivationwasdependentupontheimportancetothemofimprovingthevalueoftheclass

andoffutureclass,andtheexpectationthattheirformativefeedbackwouldleadto

increadvalueforthem,theirpeersintheclassroomandforstudentsinfutureclass”

(Caulfield,2007).Thefindingsconcludethatitisimportantthattheteachersstressthatthe

evaluationsareveryimportanttoolsforimprovingthelearningandteachingexperiencesinthe

prent,andthefuture.

Anotherrearchexampleinvolvesbusinessstudentsnearingtheirmasters’degree

poofthestudywastopredictthe

appealofpotentialemployersusingaquestionnairetoevaluatewhichgoalspeoplebelieved

ncluded“chancetobenefitsociety,freedomfromsupervision,

andhighsalary”.Afterestablishingtherankofindividualgoalpreferences,theindividuals

evaluatedthreecompaniesofinteresttodeterminethedegreetowhicheachstudentbelieved

ombiningthetwovariables,an

instrumentality-goalindexwascalculatedforeachcompanyandwasgivenanattractiveness

ultsofthestudynoticeablyindicatethatcompaniesenasprovidingameans

udyshowedthat76percentof

udy

exemplifieshowVroom’ater,after

followingtheactualemployment,similarsupportingevidencewasalsofound(Miner,2005).

Anotherrearchstudyinexpectancytestedthehypothesthatthebehaviorofsome

individualsaredeterminedbypersonalexpectancieswhilethebehaviorofotherindividuals

earcherstooktwogroupsofpeopleandgaveone

ergroupwasgiveninformationon

earchersfoundthatstrongexpectancy

behaviorcorrespondencewasgivenforthoindividualswhowereawareofpersonal

individualswho

wereattunedtosocialnorms,theirbehaviorcorrespondedwithsuch(Miller&Grush,1988).

ingtotheOxford

handbookofmotivation,expectancytheoryis“moreoftenudasanorganizingframeworkfor

mple,rearchershaveapplied

expectancytheorytoguidethedevelopmentofmodelstoexplainWorkMotivation4variations

inDUIarrestsamongpoliceofficers(Mastrofski,Ritti,Snipes,1994),effortsbymiddle

managerstochampionissuesforniorexecutivestopursue(Ashford,Rothbard,Piderit,

Dutton,1998),homerunshitbymajorleaguebaballplayers(Harder,1991)andstrategic

decisionsincompetitivemarkets(Chen&Miller,1994)”(Grant&Shin,2011).

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StrengthsandWeaknessof

ExpectancyTheory

Strengths

Whenusingtheexpectancytheorywithinorganizations/institutions,anevaluationcanbe

madeinregardtotwofactorsthatleadtovalence(thereward):theexpectationsofthe

izetheexpectancy

theoryaccurately,therearchmethodthatisudtoevaluatethemotivationsofthe

ctorofexpectancytheoryisthatitcalculates

thedifferenceinmotivationallevelsbetweentasksofoneindividual,

isdonewiththeuofthewithin-subjectdesignrearchmethod.

Touwithin-subjectdesigns,

oreisudtopredictthechoicesthat

hepredictionsofeffort,rearchers

computecorrelationsbadonthepredictionsandtheactualamountofeffortexertedby

individuals(Redmond,2010).Thestrengthofthewithin-subjectdesignsreflectsthefactthat

VroomdevelopedtheVIEtheorytodeterminedifferentmotivationallevelsacrossvarious

tasksperformedbyanindividual,ratherthanlookingatdifferencesinmotivationbetween

differentsubjects(Redmond,2010).Validitystudiesshowthattheaveragevaliditycoefficients

forwithin-subjectsdesignsrangesinthe.50’sand.60’s(Redmond,2010).

opergoalst,thiswilltriggera

motivationalprocessthatimprovesperformance.

Byutilizingexpectancytheory,organizationsareabletounderstandtheimportanceof

demonstratingappreciationfortheiremployees'work,andasaresult,theiremployeeswill

performstronger,andshowmoreloyaltytowardstheorganization.

Weakness

eVIE

theorywasdevelopedtoaccountfordifferencewithintheindividualandnotacrossdifferent

subjects,tionstudieshave

shragevalidity

coefficientsforbetween-subjectsdesignsrangesinthe.30’sand.40’s(Redmond,2010).This

isclearlylowerthanvaliditycoefficientsforwithin-subjectsdesigns.

Empiricalrearchstudieshavebeenconductedthatdemonstratethatexpectancytheory

"ignorestherationalityassumptionsunderlyingthischoicebehavior"(Wabba&Hou,

1974).Theassumptionsthataremadewithinthistheoryshowthatindividuals'motivations

ceptofthisassumptionisthatpeoplecontemplatetheir

actionstoachievetherewards,orinotherwords,itassumesthatpeopleconsciouslyknow

soassumedthatthecontemplationis

helines,anargumentcanbe

madethatmanyindividualsmightdemandarewardsystemthatisbadonashort-termtime

horizon,whileforgoingalong-termrewardsystem,eventhoughthelong-termsystemmight

hefactthatnotallmotivationsarederivedconsciously,this

theorycannotapplytoallindividuals.

Expectancytheory,bynature,onlyfocusontheextrinsicmotivationalfactorsandthe

ployeesand

leadersarenotmotivatedsolelybyextrinsicfactors,suchasapaycheck,bonus,orpublic

ult,"theconceptofinstrumentalityisfoundtobeambiguousanddifficult

tooperationalize"(Wabba&Hou,1974).Therefore,itiscriticalformanagersandleaders

inanorganizationtoreallyunderstandwhatmotivatestheiremployeesbeforeattemptingto

elmightbestbeudinconjunctionwithother

modelsofmotivation,suchastheHierarchyofNeedsandReinforcementTheory,inorderto

ensureleadersareabletoeffectivelymotivatetheiremployeestoachieveahigherlevelof

performance.

Anotherweaknessoftheexpectancytheoryisthatitisnotashelpfulunlesscertainneedsare

neneedstohavetheability,theresourcesandtheopportunitytoperformtheir

pleofthiswouldbetherolegeneticscanplayasabiologicallimitingfactor

ofperformance(Walker,2003).Justasanathletemightlackthegeneticpotentialtoperform

atanincomeproducinglevel,sotoanemployeemightlackthegeneticsrequiredtoreacha

ca,knowingwhatwillmotivatetheemployeemaynot

helpsincethescarcityofavailableresourcesmakesitdifficulttocompletetheirjob.

Anotherweaknessoftheexpectancytheoryisthatit“fallsshortofexplaininghowemployees

updateandchangetheirbeliefsovertime(Mitchell&Biglan,1971).Forexample,valence

beliefscanchangeamployeesrealizethattheiractualsatisfactionwithanoutcomeis

different(e.g.,lowerorhigher)thanthesatisfactionthattheyanticipated(e.g.,Wilson&Gilbert,

2005)”(Grant&Shin,2011).

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ApplicationofExpectancyTheoryinthe

Workplace

OrganizationalApplications:Expectancy

Aleaders'abilitytounderstandexpectancyasrelatedtotheE-Plinkagecanbeextremely

refivedistinctcomponentsforaleadertokeepinmind

,aleaderneedstodoisprentareasonablychallenging

eenshownthatunchallengingworkleadstoboredom,

ngingworkallowsforlf-confidence,education,

abilitydevelopment,training,skillsandexperience,,aleader

mustconsiderthefollower'epeopledifferonexperience,knowledge,training,

skill,educationallevelandsoforth,tasksneedtobeassignedbadontheindividual'slevel

dividualfeelstheyarenotcapabletocompletethetasksassigned,the

,leadersmustrecognizethatfollowersdiffergreatlyregarding

encewillplayasignificant

roleinthefollower’sabilitytoperceivetheireffortascapableofreachingadesired

,aleaderneedstodetermineandspecifywhichoutcomes

constituteacceptableperformance,efollowerandtheleaderneed

toreachamutualagreementonthebehaviorthatreprentsasuccessfuloutcomeforeachof

televelsofperformanceallowthefolloweranaccurateasssmentofthe

,aleadershouldrecognizethatexpenditureof

effortformanyfollowersleadstosatisfactiononthejob(Brown&Peterson,1994).Most

individualswanttofeeluful,competent,kplaceprovidesa

rthatisawareofthedistinctaspectsofhuman

perceptions,astheyrelatetoexpectancy,caneffectivelyunderstandandfacilitatetheE-P

linkageforeachoftheiremployees(Isaac,2001).Managingtheelementffectively

allowsaleadertostrengthentheexpectancyofeachoftheirfollowers.

OrganizationalApplications:Instrumentality

Thestrengthperformanceoutput(instrumentality)linkagewillbecontingentuponthreebeliefs

,afollowerneedstobeabletotrustthataleaderwillbeabletodeliver

eoutcome(giventhattheoutcomeisvaluedbytheindividual)

wersabilityto

trustthataleadercanandwillfollowthroughwithanoutcomegreatlyeffectstheP-O

mentalityisrootedinthebeliefthattheperformancerenderedwillresultinthe

,leadersneedtomakesurefollowersreceivefairtreatmentina

nottosuggestthatpeopleshouldbetreatedexactlythe

owfromthistheory,r,

comeoftreatment

afollower

shouldcometounderstandthataparticularactionisassociatedwithaparticulartypeof

derstandingreinforcestheP-Olinkage(Isaac,2001).Aleader’sabilityto

managethebehaviorassociatedwiththebeliefswilldeterminehowhisworkersperceive

Instrumentality.

OrganizationalApplications:Valence

Withvalence,,the

rneedstobeableto

reveral

typeso

rewardsrangefrommoney,toprai,toappreciation,totimeoff,

motivationaloutcomesareoflittleornocosttoacompany,andthetypesofrewards

becomehighlyvaluablemotivationaltools(Gerhart,Minkoff,Oln,1995).Onceavaluable

outcomeisidentified,,leaders

mustputalotofeffortintothealignmentofthefollowers’personalgoalsandthoofthe

tremelyimportantthatthegoalsoftheindividualworkerareassimilated

ringofthegoalsiscrucialtoworkplace

ollowerperceivesthattheirgoalsarecongruentwiththegoalsofthe

organization,thefollower'smotivationalforceassociatedwithreceivingoutcomesofhigh

r’sabilitytodothis

willgreatlyenhanceboththeirunderstandingofvalence,asitpertainstoindividualfollowers,

aswellasgivethemtheabilitytouthisunderstandingtomotivateworkersonthejob.

Knowingwhatfactorsmotivateemployeescanhavepositiveimplicationsfor

theincludereducedemployeeturnover,improvedmoraleandhigher

ectancytheorysuggests,however,thatpeoplearemotivatedby

oplearemotivatedbyexternalrewards,suchasapaycheck,paid

vacation,oragreatbenefitspackage,whileothersmayhavemoreintrinsicmotivators,such

asrecognition,mplewaystodiscoverwhatmotivatesan

individualwouldbetoeitheraskthemdirectly,orthroughalessconfrontationalmethodof

administeringaquestionnaire,equestionnairemethodislected,itcan

beadministeredtoallcompanyemployeesandcanbetterfacilitateisolatingcertainvariables

solatedvariableswillbringaboutimproveddesired

outcomes,mpleofthismay

includecertainexternalrewards,suchasanincreainpay,orsometypeofmonetary

herexamplesmightinclude:providingspecializedtrainingforanemployee

whofeelstheyarelackingtheabilityandconfidencetocompleteafunctioninasatisfactory

manner,oracquiringapieceofequipmentthatwouldimprovetheefficiencyoftheemployees

atinglectedvariables,arewardsystemcanbemoreeffectively

designed,andcanmakeitpossibletodeterminewhetherornottherewardsimplementedare

effectingpositivechange.

UtilizingtheVIEformulawillalsoallowleaderstotmotivatingobjectivesforemployees(e.g.,

ahighachievermightnotbemotivatedtoworkhardiftheworkhe/sheisperformingis

thepersonharderwork,oradditionalresponsibilitiesmightmotivate

him/hertoachieveahigherlevelofperformance).Thecompanywillbebetteroff,asmore

andmoreemployeesaremotivatedtoachieveahigherlevelofperformance.

Additionally,theworkplacecaninvolvemoreparticipantsthancompanyandemployee

nionsaresometimesconsideredparticipants,andcanalsoplayanimportant

suchunionshavelookedintoformsofexpectancyand

keacompany

wantstolearnwhatmotivatestheiremployees(whetheritbeintrinsicorextrinsicfactors),

unionswanttoknowwhatdrawsworkerstojoinunionsortovotethemout(decertify).Over

time,workersideasofunionschange,badondifferentsituationsandadjustmentsinwork

canbenefitfromunderstandingwhatdrivesthechanges,andcan

learnhow

workerperceivesthatjoiningaunionwillbeoflowcosttothem(loweffort),thentheworker

tance,ifaunionisalreadyinplace

(instrumentality),andwhattheunionoffersinpayand/orbenefitsisperceivedasvaluable

(valence),theworkerwillbemoremotivatedtojoinorremainamemberofaunion(Barling,

Fullagar,Kelloway,1992).

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