early

ElizabethIofEngland

ElizabethI(7September1533–24March1603)wasqueenregnantofEnglandand

mescalled"TheVirgin

Queen","Gloriana"or"GoodQueenBess",Elizabethwasthefifthandlastmonarch

ghterofHenryVIII,shewasbornintotheroyal

succession,buthermother,AnneBoleyn,waxecutedtwoandahalfyearsafterher

birth,withAnne'smarriagetoHenryVIIIbeingannulled,andElizabethhence

eathin1553,herhalf-brother,EdwardVI,bequeathed

thecrowntoLadyJaneGrey,cuttinghistwohalf-sisters,ElizabethandtheRoman

CatholicMary,l

wastaside,Marybecamequeen,1558,

Elizabethsucceededherhalf-sister,duringwhoreignshehadbeenimprisonedfor

nearlyayearonsuspicionofsupportingProtestantrebels.

Elizabethtouttorulebygoodcounl,[1]andshedependedheavilyonagroupof

trustedadvirsledbyWilliamCecil,erfirstmovesas

queenwastheestablishmentofanEnglishProtestantchurch,ofwhichshebecamethe

izabethanReligiousSettlementlaterevolvedintotoday's

xpectedthatElizabethwouldmarryandproduceanheir

erdid,however,despitenumerouscourtships.

Asshegrewolder,Elizabethbecamefamousforhervirginity,andacultgrewup

aroundherwhichwascelebratedintheportraits,pageants,andliteratureoftheday.

Ingovernment,Elizabethwasmoremoderatethanherfatherandhalf-siblingshad

been.[2]Oneofhermottoeswas"videoettaceo"("Ie,andsaynothing").[3]In

religionshewasrelativelytolerant,1570,

whenthepopedeclaredherillegitimateandreleadhersubjectsfromobedienceto

her,tsweredefeated,however,with

thehelpofherministers'ethwascautiousinforeignaffairs,

yhalf-heartedly

supportedanumberofineffective,poorlyresourcedmilitarycampaignsinthe

Netherlands,France,id-1580s,warwithSpaincouldnolonger

beavoided,andwhenSpainfinallydecidedtoattempttoconquerEnglandin1588,

thefailureoftheSpanishArmadaassociatedherwithoneofthegreatestmilitary

victoriesinEnglishhistory.

Elizabeth'sreignisknownastheElizabethanera,famousaboveallfortheflourishing

ofEnglishdrama,ledbyplaywrightssuchasWilliamShakespeareandChristopher

Marlowe,andfortheafaringprowessofEnglishadventurerssuchasFrancisDrake.

pictElizabethasa

short-tempered,sometimesindecisiveruler,[4]whoenjoyedmorethanhershareof

stheendofherreign,ariesofeconomicandmilitaryproblems

ethisacknowledgedasacharismaticperformeranda

doggedsurvivor,inanagewhengovernmentwasramshackleandlimitedandwhen

monarchsinneighbouringcountriesfacedinternalproblemsthatjeopardidtheir

sthecawithElizabeth'srival,Mary,QueenofScots,whomshe

heshortreignsof

Elizabeth'shalf-siblings,her44yearsonthethroneprovidedwelcomestabilityforthe

kingdomandhelpedforgeanofnationalidentity.[2]

Earlylife

ElizabethwasbornatGreenwichPalaceandwasnamedafterbothhergrandmothers,

ElizabethofYorkandElizabethHoward.[5]ShewasthecondchildofHenryVIIIof

herwasHenry'scondwife,

h,Elizabethwastheheiresspresumptivetothethroneof

erhalf-sister,Mary,hadlostherpositionasalegitimateheirwhen

HenryannulledhismarriagetoMary'smother,CatherineofAragon,tomarryAnne

andsireamaleheirtoensuretheTudorsuccession.[6][7]WhenElizabethwastwoyears

andeightmonthsold,hermotherwaxecutedon19May1536.[8]Elizabethwas

declaredillegitimateanddeprivedofherplaceintheroyalsuccession.[9]Elevendays

afterAnneBoleyn'sdeath,HenrymarriedJaneSeymour,butshediedshortlyafterthe

birthoftheirson,PrinceEdward,sbirth,Edwardwasundisputed

ethwasplacedinhishouholdandcarriedthe

chrisom,orbaptismalcloth,athischristening.[10]

Education

Elizabeth'sfirstgovernessorLadyMistress,MargaretBryan,wrotethatshewas"as

towardachildandasgentleofconditionsaverIknewanyinmylife".[11]Bythe

autumnof1537,ElizabethwasinthecareofBlancheHerbert,LadyTroy,who

remainedherLadyMistressuntilherretirementinlate1545orearly

1546.[12]CatherineChampernowne,betterknownbyherlater,marriednameof

Catherine"Kat"Ashley,wasappointedasElizabeth'sgovernessin1537,andshe

remainedElizabeth'sfrienduntilherdeathin1565,whenBlancheParrysucceeded

herasChiefGentlewomanofthePrivyChamber.[13]ChampernownetaughtElizabeth

fourlanguages:French,Flemish,ItalianandSpanish.[14]BythetimeWilliamGrindal

becamehertutorin1544,ElizabethcouldwriteEnglish,Latin,

Grindal,atalentedandskilfultutor,shealsoprogresdinFrenchandGreek.[15]After

Grindaldiedin1548,ElizabethreceivedhereducationunderRogerAscham,a

sympatheticteacherwhobelievedthatlearningshouldbeengaging.[16]Bythetime

herformaleducationendedin1550,shewasoneofthebesteducatedwomenofher

generation.[17]TheVenetianambassadorstatedin1603thatshe"possd[the]

languagessothoroughlythateachappearedtobehernativetongue".[19]

ThelifeundertheEdwardVI,andMaryI'sreign

HenryVIIIdiedin1547;Elizabeth'shalf-brother,EdwardVI,becamekingatage

ineParr,Henry'swidow,soonmarriedThomasSeymourofSudeley,

EdwardVI'suncleandthebrotheroftheLordProtector,EdwardSeymour,Dukeof

r,

approachingage40buthavingcharmand"apowerfulxappeal",[22]engagedin

ncludedenteringher

bedroominhisnightgown,r,

afterParrdiscoveredthepairinanembrace,sheendedthisstateofaffairs.[24]InMay

1548,Elizabethwasntaway.

However,ThomasSeymourcontinuedschemingtocontroltheroyalfamilyandtried

tohavehimlfappointedthegovernoroftheKing'sperson.[25][26]WhenParrdied

afterchildbirthon5September1548,herenewedhisattentionstowardsElizabeth,

intentonmarryingher.[27]ThedetailsofhisformerbehaviourtowardsElizabeth

emerged,[28]andforhisbrotherandthecouncil,thiswasthelaststraw.[29]InJanuary

1549,SeymourwasarrestedonsuspicionofplottingtomarryElizabethand

eth,livingatHatfieldHou,

stubbornnesxasperatedherinterrogator,SirRobertTyrwhitt,whoreported,"Ido

eitinherfacethatsheisguilty".[29]Seymourwasbeheadedon20March1549.

EdwardVIdiedon6July1553,lsweptasidetheSuccessiontothe

CrownAct1543,excludedbothMaryandElizabethfromthesuccession,andinstead

declaredashisheirLadyJaneGrey,granddaughterofHenryVIII'ssisterMary,

newasproclaimedqueenbythePrivyCouncil,buther

supportquicklycrumbled,de

triumphantlyintoLondon,withElizabethatherside.[30]

,adevoutCatholic,

wasdeterminedtocrushtheProtestantfaithinwhichElizabethhadbeeneducated,

andsheorderedthateveryoneattendCatholicMass;Elizabethhadtooutwardly

'sinitialpopularityebbedawayin1554whensheannouncedplansto

marryPrincePhilipofSpain,thesonofEmperorCharlesVandanactiveCatholic.[31]

Discontentspreadrapidlythroughthecountry,andmanylookedtoElizabethasa

focusfortheiroppositiontoMary'sreligiouspolicies.

InJanuaryandFebruary1554,Wyatt'srebellionbrokeout;itwassoonsuppresd.[32]

Elizabethwasbroughttocourt,andinterrogatedregardingherrole,andon18March,

ethferventlyprotestedher

innocence.[33]Thoughitisunlikelythatshehadplottedwiththerebels,someofthem

'sclostconfidant,CharlesV's

ambassadorSimonRenard,arguedthatherthronewouldneverbesafewhile

Elizabethlived;andtheChancellor,StephenGardiner,workedtohaveElizabethput

ontrial.[34]Elizabeth'ssupportersinthegovernment,includingLordPaget,convinced

d,on22

May,ElizabethwasmovedfromtheTowertoWoodstock,whereshewastospend

almostayearunderhouarrestinthechargeofSirHenryBedingfield.

On17April1555,ElizabethwasrecalledtocourttoattendthefinalstagesofMary's

andherchilddied,,on

theotherhand,Marygavebirthtoahealthychild,Elizabeth'schancesofbecoming

becameclearthatMarywasnotpregnant,no

onebelievedanylongerthatshecouldhaveachild.[37]Elizabeth'ssuccessionemed

assured.[38]

On6November,MaryrecognidElizabethasherheir.[41]On17November1558,

MarydiedandElizabethsucceededtothethrone.

Accession

Elizabethbecamequeenattheageof25,anddeclaredherintentionstoherCouncil

echcontains

thefirstrecordofheradoptionofthemediaevalpoliticaltheologyofthesovereign's

"twobodies":thebodynaturalandthebodypolitic:[42]

Ashertriumphalprogresswoundthroughthecityontheeveofthecoronation

ceremony,shewaswelcomedwholeheartedlybythecitizensandgreetedbyorations

andpageants,eth'sopenandgracious

responndearedhertothespectators,whowere"wonderfullyravished".[44]The

followingday,15January1559,ElizabethwascrownedandanointedbyOwen

Oglethorpe,theCatholicbishopofCarlisle,then

prentedforthepeople'sacceptance,amidstadeafeningnoioforgans,fifes,

trumpets,drums,andbells.[45]

Marriagequestion

Elizabethandherfavourite,RobertDudley,EarlofLeicester,stamp-sized

miniaturesbyNicholasHilliard.[52]TheQueen'sfriendshipwithDudleylastedforoverthirtyyears,

untilhisdeath.

FromthestartofElizabeth'sreign,itwaxpectedthatshewouldmarryandthequestion

erdid,althoughshereceivedmanyoffersforherhand;thereasons

ianshavespeculatedthatThomasSeymourhadputheroff

xualrelationships,orthatsheknewherlftobeinfertile.[53][54]Sheconsideredveral

tcourtshipwaswithFrancis,DukeofAnjou,22years

iskingpossiblelossofpowerlikehersister,whoplayedintothehandsof

KingPhilipIIofSpain,marriageofferedthechanceofanheir.[55]However,thechoiceofa

husbandmightalsoprovokepoliticalinstabilityoreveninsurrection.[5

Lateryears

PortraitofElizabethIattributedtoMarcusGheeraertstheYoungerorhisstudio,ca.1595.

TheperiodafterthedefeatoftheSpanishArmadain1588broughtnewdifficultiesfor

Elizabeththatlastedthefifteenyearsuntiltheendofherreign.[120]TheconflictswithSpain

andinIrelanddraggedon,thetaxburdengrewheavier,andtheeconomywashitbypoor

roandthestandardoflivingfell.[145][146]Duringthis

time,repressionofCatholicsintensified,andElizabethauthoridcommissionsin1591to

interrogateandmonitorCatholichouholders.[147]Tomaintaintheillusionofpeaceand

prosperity,sheincreasinglyreliedoninternalspiesandpropaganda.[145]Inherlastyears,

mountingcriticismreflectedadeclineinthepublic'saffectionforher.[148]

Oneofthecausforthis"condreign"ofElizabeth,asitissometimescalled,[149]wasthe

differentcharacterofElizabeth'sgoverningbody,

eexceptionofLordBurghley,themostimportant

politicianshaddiedaround1590:TheEarlofLeicesterin1588,SirFrancisWalsinghamin

1590,SirChristopherHattonin1591.[150]Factionalstrifeinthegovernment,whichhadnot

existedinanoteworthyformbeforethe1590s,[151]nowbecameitshallmark.[152]Abitter

rivalrybetweentheEarlofEsxandRobertCecil,sonofLordBurghley,andtheirrespective

adherents,forthemostpowerfulpositionsinthestatemarredpolitics.[153]Thequeen's

personalauthoritywaslesning,[154],hertrusted

waswronglyaccudbytheEarlofEsxoftreasonoutofpersonal

pique,shecouldnotpreventhixecution,althoughshehadbeenangryabouthisarrest

andemsnottohavebelievedinhisguilt(1594).[155]

Elizabeth,duringthelastyearsofherreign,cametorelyongrantingmonopoliesasa

cost-freesystemofpatronageratherthanaskParliamentformoresubsidiesinatimeof

war.[156]Thepracticesoonledtoprice-fixing,theenrichmentofcourtiersatthepublic's

expen,andwidespreadrentment.[157]ThisculminatedinagitationintheHouof

Commonsduringtheparliamentof1601.[158]Inherfamous"GoldenSpeech"of30

November1601,Elizabethprofesdignoranceoftheabusandwonthemembersover

withpromisandherusualappealtotheemotions:[159]

Whokeepstheirsovereignfromthelapoferror,inwhich,byignoranceandnotbyintent

theymighthavefallen,whatthanktheyderve,weknow,

nothingismoredeartousthanthelovingconrvationofoursubjects'hearts,whatan

underveddoubtmightwehaveincurrediftheabursofourliberality,thethrallersofour

people,thewringersofthepoor,hadnotbeentoldus![160]

RobertDevereux,2ndEarlofEsx,byWilliamSegar,1588

Thissameperiodofeconomicandpoliticaluncertainty,however,producedanunsurpasd

literaryfloweringinEngland.[161]Thefirstsignsofanewliterarymovementhadappearedat

theendoftheconddecadeofElizabeth'sreign,withJohnLyly'sEuphuesandEdmund

Spenr'the1590s,someofthegreatnamesof

Englishliteratureenteredtheirmaturity,includingWilliamShakespeareandChristopher

thisperiodandintotheJacobeanerathatfollowed,theEnglishtheatre

reacheditshighestpeaks.[162]ThenotionofagreatElizabethanagedependslargelyonthe

builders,dramatists,poets,andmusicianswhowereactiveduringElizabeth'

owedlittledirectlytothequeen,whowasneveramajorpatronofthearts.[163]

portrayedasBelphoebeorAstraea,

andaftertheArmada,asGloriana,theeternallyyouthfulFaerieQueeneofEdmund

Spenr'ntedportraitsbecamelessrealisticandmoreatofenigmatic

,herskinhadbeenscarredby

smallpoxin1562,leavingherhalfbaldanddependentonwigsandcosmetics.[164]SirWalter

Raleighcalledher"aladywhomtimehadsurprid".[165]However,themoreElizabeth's

beautyfaded,themorehercourtierspraidit.[164]

Elizabethwashappytoplaythepart,[166]butitispossiblethatinthelastdecadeofherlife

amefondandindulgentofthe

charmingbutpetulantyoungRobertDevereux,EarlofEsx,whowasLeicester'sstepson

andtooklibertieswithherforwhichsheforgavehim.[167]Sherepeatedlyappointedhimto

sx'sdertionofhis

commandinIrelandin1599,Elizabethhadhimplacedunderhouarrestandthefollowing

yeardeprivedhimofhismonopolies.[168]InFebruary1601,theearltriedtoraiarebellion

ndedtoizethequeenbutfewralliedtohissupport,andhewas

ethknewthatherownmisjudgementswerepartlytoblame

rverreportedin1602that"Herdelightistositinthedark,

andsometimeswithsheddingtearstobewailEsx".[169]

Death

"RainbowPortrait",c.1600,anallegoricalreprentationoftheQueen,become

agelessinheroldage

Elizabeth'snioradvisor,Burghley,iticalmantlepasdtohis

son,RobertCecil,whosoonbecametheleaderofthegovernment.[170]Onetaskhe

lizabethwouldnever

namehersuccessor,Cecilwasobligedtoproceedincret.[171]Hethereforeenteredintoa

codednegotiationwithJamesVIofScotland,whohadastrongbutunrecognidclaim.[172]

CecilcoachedtheimpatientJamestohumourElizabethand"curetheheartofthehighest,

towhoxandqualitynothingissoimproperaitherneedlesxpostulationsorover

muchcuriosityinherownactions".[173]'stonedelightedElizabeth,

whoresponded:"SotrustIthatyouwillnotdoubtbutthatyourlastlettersaresoacceptably

takenasmythankscannotbelackingforthesame,butyieldthemtoyouingrateful

sort".[174]'sview,Elizabethmaynothavedeclaredherwishesopenlyto

James,butshemadethemknownwith"unmistakableifveiledphras".[175]

TheQueen'shealthremainedfairuntiltheautumnof1602,whenariesofdeathsamong

uary1603,thedeathofCatherine

Howard,CountessofNottingham,thenieceofhercousinandclofriendCatherine,Lady

Knollys,h,Elizabethfellsickandremainedina"ttled

andunremovablemelancholy".[176]Shediedon24March1603atRichmondPalace,between

urslater,Cecilandthecouncilttheirplansin

motionandproclaimedJamesVIofScotlandaskingofEngland.[177]

Elizabeth'scoffinwascarrieddownriveratnighttoWhitehall,

herfuneralon28April,thecoffinwastakentoWestminsterAbbeyonaheardrawnbyfour

ordsofthechroniclerJohnStow:

Westminsterwassurchargedwithmultitudesofallsortsofpeopleintheirstreets,hous,

windows,leadsandgutters,thatcameouttoetheobquy,andwhentheybeheldher

statuelyinguponthecoffin,therewassuchageneralsighing,groaningandweepingasthe

likehathnotbeenenorknowninthememoryofman.

Elizabeth'sfuneralcortège,1603,withbannersofherroyalancestors

ElizabethwasinterredinWestminsterAbbeyinatombsheshareswithherhalf-sister,Mary.

TheLatininscriptionontheirtomb,"Regnoconsortes&urna,hicobdormimusElizabethaet

Mariasorores,insperesurrectionis",translatesto"Consortsinrealmandtomb,herewe

sleep,ElizabethandMary,sisters,inhopeofresurrection".[179]

Legacyandmemory

Furtherinformation:CulturaldepictionsofElizabethIofEngland

Elizabethwaslamentedbymanyofhersubjects,butotherswererelievedatherdeath.[180]

ExpectationsofKingJamesstartedhighbutthendeclined,sobythe1620stherewasa

nostalgicrevivalofthecultofElizabeth.[181]Elizabethwaspraidasaheroineofthe

asdepictedasaCatholic

sympathir,presidingoveracorruptcourt.[182]ThetriumphalistimagethatElizabethhad

cultivatedtowardstheendofherreign,againstabackgroundoffactionalismandmilitary

andeconomicdifficulties,[183]y

Goodman,BishopofGloucester,recalled:"WhenwehadexperienceofaScottish

government,shermemorymuchmagnified."[184]

Elizabeth'sreignbecameidealidasatimewhencrown,churchandparliamenthadworked

inconstitutionalbalance.[185]

HermemorywasalsorevivedduringtheNapoleonicWars,whenthenationagainfound

itlfonthebrinkofinvasion.[188]IntheVictorianera,theElizabethanlegendwasadaptedto

theimperialideologyoftheday,[180][189]andinthemid-20thcentury,Elizabethwasa

romanticsymbolofthenationalresistancetoforeignthreat.[190][191]Historiansofthatperiod,

(1934)(1950),interpretedElizabeth'sreignasagolden

ageofprogress.[192]NealeandRowalsoidealidtheQueenpersonally:shealwaysdid

everythingright;hermoreunpleasanttraitswereignoredorexplainedassignsofstress.[193]

Recenthistorians,however,havetakenamorecomplicatedviewofElizabeth.[194]Herreignis

famousforthedefeatoftheArmada,andforsuccessfulraidsagainsttheSpanish,suchas

thoonCádizin1587and1596,butsomehistorianspointtomilitaryfailuresonlandand

ata.[124]InIreland,Elizabeth'sforcesultimatelyprevailed,buttheirtacticsstainher

record.[195]RatherthanasabravedefenderoftheProtestantnationsagainstSpainandthe

Habsburgs,eredvery

limitedaidtoforeignProtestantsandfailedtoprovidehercommanderswiththefundsto

makeadifferenceabroad.[196]

ElizabethestablishedanEnglishchurchthathelpedshapeanationalidentityandremainsin

placetoday.[197][198][199]ThowhopraidherlaterasaProtestantheroineoverlookedher

refusaltodropallpracticesofCatholicoriginfromtheChurchofEngland.[200]Historians

notethatinherday,strictProtestantsregardedtheActsofSettlementandUniformityof

1559asacompromi.[201][202]Infact,Elizabethbelievedthatfaithwaspersonalanddidnot

wish,asFrancisBaconputit,to"makewindowsintomen'sheartsandcret

thoughts".[203][204]

ThoughElizabethfollowedalargelydefensiveforeignpolicy,herreignraidEngland's

statusabroad."Sheisonlyawoman,onlymistressofhalfanisland,"marvelledPopeSixtus

V,"andyetshemakesherlffearedbySpain,byFrance,bytheEmpire,byall".[205]Under

Elizabeth,thenationgainedanewlf-confidenceandnofsovereignty,asChristendom

fragmented.[181][206][207]ElizabethwasthefirstTudortorecognithatamonarchruledby

popularconnt.[208]Shethereforealwaysworkedwithparliamentandadvirsshecould

trusttotellherthetruth—astyleofgovernmentthatherStuartsuccessorsfailedtofollow.

Somehistorianshavecalledherlucky;[205]shebelievedthatGodwasprotectingher.[209]

Pridingherlfonbeing"mereEnglish",[210]ElizabethtrustedinGod,honestadvice,andthe

loveofhersubjectsforthesuccessofherrule.[211]Inaprayer,sheofferedthankstoGodthat:

[Atatime]whenwarsandditionswithgrievouspercutionshavevexedalmostallkings

andcountriesroundaboutme,myreignhathbeenpeacable,andmyrealmareceptacleto

eofmypeoplehathappearedfirm,andthedevicesofmy

enemiesfrustrate.[205]