conditioned

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Chapter5Learning

第五章学习

Inthischapter,wewilllearnthreemaininterpretationsaboutlearninginthree

canlearnfrommodule15isclassicalconditioning;andthenwe

module16willshowusoperantconditioning;atlast,wewillviewlearningin

cognitiveperspectiveinmodule17.

MODULE15CLASSICALCONDITIONING

Learningisalastingchangeinbehaviorormentalprocessthatresultfrom

resomeformsoflearning:habituation,mereexposureeffect,

classicalconditioning,operantconditioningandcognitivelearning.

Pavlov'sConditioningExperiments

RussianpsychologistIvanPavlovhituponclassical(orPavlovian)conditioning

nedadogtosalivateat

thesoundofabellbyprentingthesoundjustbeforefoodwasbroughtintotheroom.

cal

conditioningisabasicformoflearninginwhichastimulusthatproducesaninnate

reflexbecomesassociatedwithapreviouslyneuralstimulus,whichthenacquiresthe

lstimulus(US)areanystimulus

broughtintoa

conditioningexperiment,therearcherwillcallitaconditionedstimulus.

Unconditionedstimulus(UNS)isthestimulusthatelicitsanunconditionedrespon.

Unconditionedrespon(UCR)istheresponelicitedbyanunconditionedstimulus

itionistheinitiallearningstageinclassical

conditioning,duringwhichtheconditionedresponcomestobeelicitedbythe

ionedrespon(CR)isaresponelicitedbya

previouslyneutralstimulusthathasbecomeassociatedwiththeunconditioned

stimulusinclassicalconditioning.

ClassicalConditioninginHumans

WatsonandRosalieRaynerconditionedalittleboy,Albert,tofearwhiteratsby

makingaloud,uchthe

sameprinciple,MaryCoverJonesdevelopedamethodforunlearningfears:She

pairedthesightofacagedrat,atgraduallydecreasingdistances,withachild's

thodevolvedintodensitizationtherapy,

aconditioningtechniquedesignedtograduallyreduceanxietyaboutaparticular

ly,scientistshavediscoveredthattheimmunesystemmay

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respondtoclassicalconditioningtechniques,thusallowingdoctorstoufewerdrugs

intreatingcertaindisorders.

ClassicalConditioningIsSelective

Somekindsofconditioningareaccomplishedveryeasily,whereasotherkinds

chdemonstratingthatwedevelopphobiasaboutsnakesand

spiders,forexample,butalmostneveraboutflowersorcookingutensilsillustrates

Seligman'sprinciplesofpreparednessandcontrapreparedness,e

withwhichwedevelopconditionedfood(ortaste)aversionsalsoillustrateslearning

ionedfoodaversionsareexceptionstothegeneralrulesabout

scanlearntoavoidpoisonousfoodevenifthereisa

cas,onlyone

pairingofconditionedandunconditionedstimuliisnecessaryforlearningtotake

place.

MODULE16OPERANTCONDITIONING

Classicalconditioningfocusonabehaviorthatinvariablyfollowsaparticular

event,whereasoperant(orinstrumental)conditioningconcernsthelearningof

behaviorthatoperatesontheenvironment:Thepersonoranimalbehavesina

behaviorisinitiallyemittedratherthanelicited—youwaveyourhandtoflagdowna

taxi,dogsbegatthedinnertabletogetfood.

Thorndike'sConditioningExperiments

PsychologistEdwardLeeThorndikewasthefirstrearchertostudyoperant

a"puzzlebox"todeterminehowcatslearn.

ElementsofOperantConditioning

Thorndike'sworkstillstandsasalandmarkinourunderstandingoftheeffectsof

antconditioning,reinforcement(suchasfood)

isudtoincreatheprobabilitythataparticularresponwilloccurinthefuture.

Todecreatheprobabilitythataparticularresponwillrecur,punishers(suchas

scolding)ikepropodthelawofeffect,whichstatesthatbehavior

thatisconsistentlyrewardedwillbecome"stampedin"aslearnedbehaviorand

behaviorthatisconsistentlypunishedwillbe"stampedout."

TypesofReinforcement

Thereareveralkindsofreinforcers;allofthemstrengthenbehaviorjustassteel

nceofpositivereinforcers(suchas

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food)ve

reinforcers(suchasterminatingelectricshocks)alsoincreathelikelihoodthata

behaviorwillrecur,buttheydosobyreducingoreliminatingsomethingunpleasant

fromtheenvironment.

Punishment

Althoughallreinforcers(bothpositiveandnegative)increathelikelihoodthata

behaviorwilloccuragain,punishmentisanyeventwhoprencedecreasthe

rcementalwaysstrengthens

behavior;ncetraininginvolveslearningadesirable

behaviorthatpreventsanunpleasantcondition,suchaspunishment,fromoccurring.

OperantConditioningIsSelective

Studieshaverevealedthatinoperantconditioningthebehaviorsthatareeasiestto

conditionarethothatanimalstypicallywouldperforminthetrainingsituation.

Thebehaviorsvaryfromspeciestospecies,andputsignificantconstraintsonboth

classicalandoperantconditioning.

COMPARINGCLASSICALANDOPERANTCONDITIONING

Anumberofphenomenacharacterizebothclassicalconditioningandoperant

conditioning,andthereareveraltermsandconceptscommontobothkindsof

learning.

ResponAcquisition

Inclassicalconditioning,responsoccurnaturallyandautomaticallyinthe

thephaofthelearningprocess

calledresponacquisition,thenaturallyoccurringresponsareattachedtothe

conditionedstimulusbypairingthatstimuluswiththeunconditionedstimulus.

Intermittentpairingreducesboththerateoflearningandthefinalleveloflearning

achieved.

Inoperantconditioning,responacquisitionreferstothephaofthelearning

erboxis

oftenudtolimittherangeofavailableresponsandthusincreathelikelihood

dupthisprocessandmakethe

occurrenceofadesiredresponmorelikely,motivationmaybeincreadbyletting

theanimalbecomehungry;thenumberofpotentialresponsmayalsobereducedby

restrictingtheanimal'nvironment.

Forbehaviorsoutsidethelaboratory,whichcannotbecontrolledsoconveniently,

theprocessofshapingisoftenuful:Reinforcementisgivenforsuccessive

r,therearedifferencesamongspecies

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inwhatbehaviorscanbelearnedandthecircumstancesunderwhichlearningwill

takehold.

ExtinctionandSpontaneousRecovery

Iftheunconditionedstimulusandtheconditionedstimulusarenolongerpaired,

extinctionoccurs,meaningthestrengthand/orfrequencyofthelearnedrespon

vlov'sdogsreceivednofoodafterrepeatedlyhearingthebell,

r,afterawhile,this

extinguishedresponmayreappearwithoutretraininginaprocesscalled

tioniscompletewhenthesubjectnolongerproducesthe

conditionedrespon.

Extinctionoccursinoperantconditioningwhenreinforcementiswithheld.

However,theeawithwhichabehaviorixtinguishedvariesaccordingtoveral

factors:thestrengthoftheoriginallearning,thevarietyofttingsinwhichlearning

takesplace,ally

hardtoextinguishisbehaviorlearnedthroughpunishmentratherthanreinforcement.

GeneralizationandDiscrimination

Inclassicalconditioning,situationsorstimulimayrembleeachotherenough

thatthelearnerswillreacttoonethewaytheyhavelearnedtoreacttotheother

therhand,theprocessof

stimulusdiscriminationenableslearnerstoperceivedifferencesamongstimulisothat

notallloudsounds,forexample,inclassicalconditioning,

responslearnedthroughoperantconditioningcangeneralizefromonestimulusto

other,generalizationoccurswhenthesamestimulusleads

minationinoperantconditioningistaughtby

reinforcingarespononlyintheprenceofcertainstimuli.

NEWLEARNINGBASEDONORIGINALLEARNING

Inbothclassicalandoperantconditioning,originallearningrvesasabuildingblock

fornewlearning.

Higher-OrderConditioninginClassicalConditioning

Higher-orderconditioninginclassicalconditioningusanearlierconditioned

mple,Pavlovud

rtof

conditioningisdifficulttoachievebecauofextinction:Unlessthefirst

unconditionedstimulusisprentedoccasionally,theinitialconditionedresponwill

beextinguished.

SecondaryReinforcersinOperantConditioning

Inoperantconditioning,neutralstimulicanbecomereinforcersbybeingpairedor

ryreinforcerisonethat,likefoodandwater,

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daryreinforcerisonewhovalueislearned

throughitsassociationwithprimaryreinforcersorwithothercondaryreinforcers.

Moneyisanexampleofacondaryreinforcer—inandofitlf,itisnotrewarding;it

isvaluableonlyforwhatitcanbuy.

ContingenciesinOperantConditioning

Inoperantconditioning,responcontingenciesareusuallyreferredtoasschedulesof

lyreceivereinforcementeverytimewedosomething.

Interestingly,itturnsoutthatpartialreinforcement,inwhichrewardsaregivenfor

somecorrectresponsbutnotforeveryone—resultsinbehaviorthatpersistslonger

eduleofreinforcement

rcersmaybeprovidedonthe

basisoftimesincethelastreinforcement(theintervalbetweenreinforcements).Or

reinforcementmaydependonthenumberofcorrectresponssincethelast

reinforcement(theratioofreinforcementpercorrectrespon).

Afixed-intervalscheduleprovidesreinforcementofthefirstcorrectresponaftera

fixed,ble-intervalschedulereinforcesthelearner

forthefirstcorrectresponthatoccursaftervariousperiodsoftime,sothesubject

ed-ratioschedule,

behaviorisrewardedeachtimeafixednumberofcorrectresponsisgiven;ina

variable-ratioschedule,reinforcementfollowsavaryingnumberofcorrectrespons.

MODULE17COGNITIVE-SOCIALAPPROACHESTOLEARNING

COGNITIVELEARNING

Bothhumanandnonhumananimalsalsodemonstratecognitivelearning,learningthat

isnottiedtoimmediateexperiencebystimuliandreinforcers.

LatentLearningandCognitiveMaps

EarlyexperimentsbyTolmanandotherpsychologistsdemonstratedthatlearning

takesplaceevenbeforethesubjectreachesthegoalandoccurswhetherornotthe

propodtheconceptoflatentlearning,whichmaintains

thatsubjectsstoreupknowledgeevenifthisknowledgeisnotreflectedintheir

earchsuggestedthat

latentlearningisstoredasamentalimage,epropertime

comes,thelearnercallsupthismapandputsittou.

InsightandLearningSets

Onephenomenonthathighlightstheimportanceofcognitiveprocessinginlearningis

insight,inwhichlearningemstooccurina"flash."Throughinsightlearning,

humanandsomenonhumananimalssuddenlydiscoverwholepatternsofbehavioror

ngtsrefertotheincreasingeffectivenessatproblem

solvingthatcomesaboutasmoreproblemsaresolved.

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LearningbyObrving

Sociallearningtheoryarguesthatwelearnnotjustfromfirsthandexperience,butalso

Banduracontendsthat

obrvational(orvicarious)learningaccountsformanyaspectsofhumanlearning.

Hishighlyinfluentialtheoryoflearningholdsthatalthoughreinforcementis

unrelatedtolearningitlf,reinforcementmayinfluencewhetherlearnedbehavioris

rvationallearningstresstheimportanceofmodelsin

ateamodel'sbehavior,wemust(1)payattentiontowhatthemodel

does;(2)rememberwhatthemodeldid;and(3)convertwhatwelearnedfromthe

enttowhichwedisplaybehaviorsthathavebeenlearned

throughobrvationcanbeaffectedbyvicariousreinforcementandvicarious

cognitivetheoryemphasizesthatlearningabehaviorfrom

ore

likelytoimitatebehaviorswehaveenrewarded.