expressive

语言学

名词解释：

一．Meaning:

erentialtheory:themeaningofawordtothethingitreferstoor

standsfor.

tualism:Thereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformand

nterpretationofmeaning,theyarelinked

throughthemediationofconceptinthemind.

tualism:Meaningshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,u,

context---elementsclolylinkedwithlanguagebehavior.

orism:Themeaningofalinguisticformshouldbeviewedas

“thesituationinwhichthespeakerultersitandtheresponwhichitcalls

forthinthehearer”.

gsofmeaning:

(1)Conceptualmeaning:isthemeaninggiveninthedictionaryandit

ewordhasthesame

conceptualmeaningtoallthespeakersofthesamelanguage.

(2)Connotativemeaning:itreferstoovertoneswhichawordssuggests

orimplies.

(3)Socialmeaning(stylisticmeaning):It’sthelevelofmeaningthatwe

relyon,whenweidentifycertainsocialcharacteristicsofspeakersand

situationsfromthewordsudthecommunication.

(4)Affectivemeaning(情感意义):It’sthelevelofmeaningthatconveys

thelanguageursfeelings,attitudes,andpointsaboutaparticularpiece

ofinformationorabouttheongoingcontext.

(5)Reflectedmeaning:It’sthelevelofmeaningwhichconveysthe

unfavorableassociationorreflection.

(6)Collocativemeaning(搭配意义)：Itconsistsoftheassociationsa

wordacquiresincollocationorthepartofthewordmeaningssuggested

bythewordsbeforeorafterthewordindiscussion.

(7)Thematicmeaning(主位意义)：It’sdeterminedbytheorderofthe

wordsinthentenceandthedifferentprominencetheyeachreceive.

二．Antonymy(反义)

leantonymy:Theyareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthe

twomembersofsuchapair.

mentaryantonymy:Thedenialofonememberofthepair

impliestheasrtionoftheother.

antonymy:Thisisthespecialtypeofantonymyinthatthe

showthereversalofarelationshipbetween2entities.

三．Superordinate(上义词)

Asuperordinateusuallyhasveralhyponyms(下义词).Underflower,

therearepeony,jasmine,tulip,violetandmanyothersapartfromro.

Themembersofthesameclassareco-hyponyms(并列下义词).

四．Hyponymy(上下义关系)

It’sthenofrelationbetweenamoregeneralormoreinclusiveword

’stherelationshipwherethemeaningofone

wordisincludedinthemeaningofanotherword.

五．Homonymy(同音异义)：

Itreferstothewordshavingdifferentmeanings,havethesameform.

Differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspellingorinboth.

六．Componentialanalysis:(成分)

approachisbadonthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbe

analydintomeaningcomponentscalledmanticcomponentsor

manticfeatures.

七．Predication(述谓构成)：

Predicationreferstotheabstractionofthemeaningofantence.A

mentisalogical

participantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelements

cateissomethingsaidaboutanargument,orit

statesthelogicalrelationlinkingtheargumentsinantence.

八.Locutionaryact(发话行为):

anactofsayingsomethingthat’sanactofmakingameaningful

utterance.

九．Illocutionaryact(行事行为)：

Anactperformedinsayingsomething,that’sinsayingXIwasdoing

Y.

十．Perlocutionaryact(取效行为)：

AnactperformedasaresultofsayingXanddoingYIdidZ.

十一．5basictypesofspeechacts:

entatives(陈述):

Theillocutionaryactofreprentativesistocommitthespeakertothe

truthofsomething.

ives(指令)：

Theillocutionaryactofdirectivesistogetthespeakertodosomething.

ives(许诺)：

Theillocutionaryactofcommssivesistocommitthespeakertosome

futureaction.

sives(表情)：

Theillocutionaryactofexpressivesistoexpressthepsychologicalstate

aboutsomething.

atives(声明)：

Theillocutionaryactofdeclarativesistobringaboutimmediatechange

ofexistingstateofaffairs.

十二．Sociolinguistics

It’sabranchofmacrolinguisticswhichstudystherelationshipbetween

thelanguageandsociety.

十三．Speechcommunity(言语社团)：

Itreferstothesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecial

socio-linguisticstudy.

十四．Speechvariety(语言变体)：

It’rstoanydistinguishableform

ofspeechudbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.

十五．Dialectalvarieties/Dialects(方言变体)：

aldialect:

It’salanguagevarietyudbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographical

region.

aldialect:

It’salanguagevarietydeterminedbytimepeoplelivedin.

ect:

It’salanguagevarietycharacteristicofaparticularsocialclass.

ct(个人方言)：

It’sapersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinelements

regardingregional,social,genderandagevariations.

rddialect:

It’saparticularlanguagevarietythathasnoconnectionwithaparticular

regionbutwidelyacceptedandnormallyudinaofficialdocument,

newspaper,newscast,taughtinschoolsandtonon-nativespeakers.

十六．Pidgin(洋泾浜语)：

It’’sudby

peoplewhospeakdifferentlanguageforrestrictedpurpossuchas

:“Longtimenoe”.

十七．Creole(克里奥尔语/混合语)

WhenaPidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity

andit’sacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnative

’ssaidtohavebecomeaCreole.

十八．Bilingualism(双语现象)：

Insomespeechcommunities,2languagesareudsidebysidewith

eachhavingadifferentroadtoplayandlanguageswitchingoccurswhen

onstitutesthesituationofbilingualism.

十九．Diglossia(双语体)：

tead

of2differentlanguages,inadiglossiasituation,2varietiesofa

languageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunitywitheachhavinga

definiteroadtoplay.

二十.Registers(语域)：

（1）Narrow:occupation

（2）Broad:It’salanguagevarietyresultedfromconfigurationof

veralcontextualfeatures.

二十一.Codeswitching（语码转换）：

Itreferstothealterationbetweenoneormorelanguages,dialectsand

ourofdiscour,betweenpeoplewhohavemore

thanonelanguageincommon.

二十二.Linguisticdeterminism:(语言决定论)

gemaydetermine

ourthinkingpatterns.

二十三.Linguisticrelativity:(语言相对论)

（1）Differentlanguagesmayprobablyexpressspeakers’uniqueways

ofunderstandingtheworld.(2)Similaritybetweenlanguagesisrelative.

(3)Fortwodifferentspeechcommunities,thegreatertheirstructural

differentiationis,themoredivertheirconceptualizationoftheworld

willbe.

二十四.CognitiveLinguistics(认知语言学)：

rization范畴化(superordinate--basic--subordinate越来越具体)

Categorizationisaprocessofclassifyingofexperienceintodifferent

categories,badoncommonalitiesanddifferences.

(1)Superordinatelevel（上谓层次）---themostgeneralones

bersofa

Superordinatecategoriesdonothaveenoughfeaturesincommonto

parasitical

aisthatyouactuallyborrowsomefeaturesfroma

basiclevelcategoryandapplythemtotheSuperordinatecategory.

(a)Superordinatecategoriesarelessgoodcategoriesthanbasiclevel

categories,becaualthoughmembersarerelativelydistinctfrom

membersofneighboringcategories,within-categoryremblanceis

relativelylow;

(b)Superordinatecategorieshavefewerdefiningfeaturesthanbasiclevel

categories;

(c)Immediatesuperordinatesofbasiclevelcategoriesoftenhavea

single-attributerelationtoahighersuperordinatecategory.

(d)Linguistically,namesforsuperordinatecategoriesareoftenmass

nouns(集合名词)whenbasicleveltermsarecountnouns.

(2)Basiclevel(基本层次)--badon(1)and(3)

Thecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethothataremostculturallysalient

andarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.

（a）Itisthemostinclusivelevelatwhichtherearecharacteristicpatterns

ofbehavioralinteraction.(b)Themostinclusivelevelforwhichaclear

visualimagecanbeformed.(c)Themostinclusivelevelatwhich

eludforeveryday

reference.

(3)Subordinatelevel(下属层次)--themostspecificones

Theyhaveclearlyidentifiablegestaltsandlotsofindividualspecific

levelweperceivethedifferencesbetweenthemembers

suchexampleisthatofcompoundnouns.

(a)Subordinatecategoriesarelessgoodcategoriesthanbasiccategories,

becaualthoughtheirmembershavehighmutualremblance,they

havelowdistinctivenessfrommembersofneighboringcategories.

(b)Theyaresuchlessinformativerelativetotheirimmediatesuperior

category.

(c)Theyarefrequentlypolymorphemic(复合词素词的），themost

commonpatternbeingmodifier-head.

cheme意象图示：

MarkJohnsondefinesanimageschemaasarecurring,dynamicpattern

ofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherence

andstructuretoourexperience.

Imageschematicstructureshavetwocharacteristics:theyare

pre-conceptualschematicstructuremergingfromourbodilyexperience

andtheyareconstantlyoperatinginourperceptualinteraction,bodily

movementthroughspace,andphysicalmanipulation(处理)ofobjects.

（1）Acenter-peripheryschema中心边缘图示：(如：家人朋友在中心)

Itinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedge,anddegreesof

:thestructureofanapple,anindividual’s

perceptualsphere(感知的范围)，anindividual’ssocialsphere,with

familyandfriendsatthecoreandothersattheoutside.

（2）Acontainmentschema容器图示：

Itisanimageschemathatinvolvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundary,

enclod(隔绝的）areaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.A

containmentschemahasadditionaloptional(可选择的)properties(内容、

性能)，suchastransitivity(及物的)ofenclosure(附件，围墙)，objects

insideoroutsidetheboundary,protectionofanenclodobject,the

restrictionofforcesinsidetheenclosure,andtherelativelyfixedposition

ofanenclodobject.例句：p

cameintoourview.

(3)Acycleschema循环图示（对时间的认识）：

uctureincludesthe

following:astartingpoint,aprogressionthroughsuccessive(连续的)

eventswithoutbacktracking(回溯)，

schemahasoftensuperimpod(重叠)onitastructurethatbuildstoward

:days,

weeks,years,sleepingandwaking,breathing,circulation,emotional

buildupandrelea(情感积累与释放).

（4）Aforceschema力图示：

udesthe

followingelements:asource（起源）andtargetoftheforce,adirection

andintensityoftheforce,apathofmotion（移动路径）fromasourceto

atarget,aquenceofcausation（一系列因果关系）.Herearesome

kindsofforceschemas:anattractionschema,abalanceschema,a

blockage（堵塞，妨碍）schema,acompulsionschema,acounterforce

schema,adiversionschema,anenablement（启动）schema,arestraint

(抑制，约束)removal（排除）schema.

（5）Alinkschema连接图示（朋友圈、手机充电）

Itconsistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyor

metaphorically,esomeexamples:a

childholdinghermother’shand,someonepluggingalampintothewall,

acausal“connection”,kinship“ties”.

(6)Apathschema路径图示（空间移动）

Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,and

consistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andariesofintermediate(中间

的)nbeexemplified（证明）bypathsandtrajectories（轨

道）.例句：Tomhadgonealongwaytochangehispersonality.

(7)Apart-wholeschema部分-整体图示

Itinvolvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsanda

:thebodyanditsparts,thefamilyandthe

caste(种姓)structureofIndia.

(8)Ascaleschema标量图示

Itinvolvesanincreaordecreaofphysicalormetaphoricalamount,

andconsistsofanyofthefollowing:aclod-endoropen-end

progressionofamount,apositionintheprogressionofamount,oneor

morenorms(标准，定额)ofamount,acalibration(刻度，标度)of

esomeexamples:physicalamounts,propertiesinthe

numbersystem.

(9)Averticalityschema垂直图示

Itinvolves“up”and“down”esomeexamplesof

verticalityschemas:standingupright,climbingstairs,viewinga

flagpole,watchingwaterriinatub.

tualMetaphor概念隐喻：

It’sdefinedasunderstandingoneconceptualdomainintermsofanother

conceptualdomain,tualMetaphorstypically

uamoreabstract(抽象的)conceptastargetandamoreconcrete（具体

的）orphysicalconceptastheirsource.

Incognitivelinguistics,metaphorsarereprentedbyasimpleformula:

“XisY”,inwhichXisthetargetdomainandYisthesourcedomain.

(1)Ontologicalmetaphors:实体隐喻

Ontologicalmetaphorsmeansthathumanexperienceswithphysical

objectsprovidethebasisforwaysofviewingevents,activities,

emotions,ideas,etc,gicalmetaphors

logicalmetaphorswegivebounded

surfacestolessclearlydiscreteentities(mountains,hedges,streetcorners)

andcategorizeevents,actionsandstatesassubstances.

例子：Inflationisloweringourstandardofliving.(Inflationisanentity

there,

Itmeansrisingprices).

本体论隐喻通过一些特殊的方位词,我们得到了一些本体论隐

喻,比如“up-down,in-ou,tfront-back”等。

在现实生活中,通过具体的实体或者实物,我们可以更好的

理解抽象的事物。在本体论隐喻中,我们经常把抽象的、无形

的概念,比如说思维、感情、心理事件等当作具体而有形的实

体,特别是人们的肉体。通常,本体论隐喻由三个部分组成:1)

实体和实物隐喻;2)容器隐喻;3)人化身隐喻。

1)实体和实物隐喻：在实体和实物隐喻中,一种非常普遍的

现象就是抽象性的概念经常被看作可以感知的具体物体。

THEMINDISAMACHINE.

在这个例子中,思想和机器相联系,因此,思想就被赋予了

机器的特性,具有“打开”和“关上”的能力,也具有生产的能

力,能够日夜进行运转。以下两个例子就是对该概念隐喻的具

体应用:

1)Mymindisnotoperatingtoday.

2)Iamalittlerustytoday.

不难发现,在我们的日常生活中存在着许多实体和实物隐

喻的例子。因为这些隐喻被人们自然而便捷地使用着,因此,久

而久之,人们已忘记了它们本身其实是隐喻。

2)容器隐喻:容器隐喻是一种最典型和最特殊的本体论隐喻。人

类本身是独立于物质世界之外的一种实体,并且由于其特殊性,

每一个人本身都是一个容器。

具体而言,人体被分为了两个部分:内部和外部,这种划分本身

就具备了容器的特征。人类还把这些隐喻概念投射到了人体之

外的其他物体,比如说房子、森林、田野、面积等等,甚至人们

还把无形和抽象的事件、行为、活动等称为容器。

在日常生活中,人类把对容器的感知影射到了外部环境中,

从中我们得到了容器隐喻。具体而言,容器隐喻的图式由这几

个元素构成,即内部、外部、界限。这里,我们可以把房子作为

一个例子:从一个房间进入另一个房间可以被理解为从一个容

器移进另一个容器。除此之外,还有很多实物都可以被认为是

容器。比如说跳进水里或飞上天空等。另外,我们也可以使用

容器的概念来理解别的事物,让我们看以下的例子:

1)Heisoutoftheracenow.

2)Weareoutoftroublenow.

为了更好的理解这两个容器隐喻,可以从Metaphorswe

liveby(Lakof,f1980)中引用一个经典例子:

LIFEISACONTAINER.

从对这个容器隐喻的分析中我们可以看出,生活———这

个抽象的概念可以被理解为一个瓶子。瓶子可以是空的也可以

是满的,开心和悲伤这样的感情可以被放进去,也可以被完全取

出来。

3)拟人化隐喻:在所有的本体论隐喻中,拟人化隐喻是被使

用最广的。拟人化隐喻的实质就是通过人类的感情、特征和活

动方式来感知人类之外的实体和抽象的概念。以下隐喻在日常

生活中被广泛使用:

1)Acuphasamouth.

2)Ateapothasanear.

3)Atablehasfeet

显而易见,通过使用拟人化隐喻,思维的复杂过程会被缩短,而

语言本身也会变得更加生动和具有艺术性。

(2)Structuralmetaphors结构隐喻

Structuralmetaphorsplaythemostimportantrolebecau

itallowsustogobeyondorientationandreferringandgives

usthepossibilitytostructureoneconceptaccordingto

ansthatStructuralmetaphorsare

uralmetaphorsimply

howoneconceptismetaphoricallystructuredintermsof

another.

结构隐喻就是使用一种高清晰结构的概念隐喻来建构其他的

隐喻。如:

ARGUMENTISWAR.

以下隐喻都是对这个结构隐喻的具体应用:

1)Yourclaimsareindefensible.

2)Heattackedeveryweakpointinmyargument

3)Hiscriticismswererightontarget

4)Ihaveneverwonanargumentwithhim.

5)Ifyouuthatstrategy,hewillwipeyouout

6)Heshotdownallofmyarguments.

从以上例子可以发现,这些隐喻都是围绕“argument”这

个主题而使用的,且有一些具体的军事术语被使用在这些例子

里面,比如“defen,attack,win,strategy”等等。因此,在以

上例子中,我们使用了这些军事术语去建构“argument”这个

概念。确实,我们可以在我们的“argument”中获赢或失败。

而且,在争论中,我们把那些同我们争辩的人称为敌人,我

们可以进攻他们的观点,以便维持我方的观点。因此,在我们的

日常生活中,通过物体之间的相互联系,结构隐喻已深深的根植

于我们的思维和行为之中,并且影响着我们的感知行为。

(3)Orientationmetaphors方位隐喻

Orientationmetaphorsgivesaconceptaspatial（空间的）

echaracterizednotsomuchby

structuringoneconceptintermsofanother,butbya

co-occurrence(共现)entation

metaphorsaregroundedinanexperientialbasis,whichlink

kverb“is”,

partofthemetaphor,shouldbeenasthelinkoftwo

:

arebadonhumanphysicalandculturalexperience.

方位隐喻在语言学界,大多数语言学家都持有这样的观点:方位

隐喻对人类各种概念的形成有着重大的意义,因为许多抽象概

念都是通过方位隐喻来进行表达和理解的。“方位隐喻是一种

意象图式隐喻”,而隐喻的认知基础正是意象图式。“up-down,

in-out,front-back,on-off,deep-shallow,central-peripheral”

之类的方位词都被认为是意象图式。这些认知结构对于人类都

是很有意义的,因为它们来源于我们,同我们所处的物质世界的

各种事物有直接联系。

根据认知语法的观点,意象图式主要由动体(TR)、路标

(LM)、路径(PATH)构成,这三个元素都代表着一个非对称的关

系。其中,TR代表该关系中的运动主体,而LM是该关系中的另

一个实体,也就是运动主体的参考对象。如:

1)他爬上了树。

2)桌上有一本书。

3)温度下降了10度。

在例1)中,他代表TR,树表示LM。在例2)中,书是指TR,

桌子是指LM,但是TR和LM都是具体物体。这两个例子所使

用的隐喻均是UP-DOWN。

在例3)中,温度是TR,10度是LM。这三个例子是从以下这个

概念隐喻中引申出来的:HIGHTEM-PEPATUREISUP,LOW

TEMPERATUREISDOWN。

以上是从认知语法的角度进行探讨的,下面我们要透过物

质世界给出一些方位隐喻的例子:

1)HAPPYISUP;SADISDOWN.

从上面的讨论中我们可以看出这是一个概念隐喻,而以下

这些隐喻都是对该概念隐喻的具体应用:

a)Iwon’tletyoudown.

b)Myheartsank.

c)Iaminhighspirits.

d)Heisfeelingup.

该概念隐喻中的方位词主要是“down,sank,high,up”,

它存在的物质基础主要是遵循了物质世界运行的规律,即低垂

的姿势伴随着悲痛和沮丧的心情,而竖直上升的姿势伴随着积

极的情感状态。

2)MOREISUP;LESSISDOWN.

同样,这也是一个概念隐喻,下面所列举的隐喻也都是对该

概念隐喻的具体运用:

a)Thenumberofbooksprintedeachotherkeepsgoing

up.

b)Myincomerolastyear.

c)Hisincomefelllastyear

d)Theamountofartisticactivityinthisstatehasgonedown

inthepastyear.

该概念隐喻中的方位词主要是“goingup,ro,fell

down”。对于这个隐喻概念,它存在的物质基础主要是和物质

世界的这样一种运动规律相关,即:

如果你给一个容器或一堆东西增加更多的实物,那么这个

容器或这堆东西的水平线将会上升;同样,如果你减少更多的实

物,那么这个容器或这堆东西的水平线将会下降。

tualMetonymy概念转喻：

It’sacognitiveprocessinwhichoneconceptualentityprovidesmental

accesstoanotherconceptualentitywithinthesamedomain,badon

contiguity(相关性)andcausality(因果性).

转喻是用人们认知上的两种东西之间的关联，使一物转指另一物成为

可能，常见的有:用来源指称结果事物，用局部指称整体等方式.例如：

炉子着了。（炉子指代炉中的火）

白宫没有表态。（白宫指代美国政府）

他瞎了。（他指代他的眼睛）

(1)WholeICM(IdealizedCognitiveModels)anditspart(s)理

想化认知模式

(a)Thing-and-PartICM:(整体与部分间的转喻)

ThisICMmayleadtothetwometonymicvariants:

＊Wholethingforapartorthething:Americafor“Unitedstate”.(整

体--部分)

＊Partofathingforthethingforthewholething:Englandfor

“GreatBritain”.（部分---整体）

（b）ScaleICM(标里转喻)：

Scaleareaspecialclassofthingsandthescalar(标量的)unitsare

lly,ascaleasawholeisudforitsupper

endandtheupperendofascaleisudtostandforthescaleasa

whole:

＊Wholescaleforupperendofthescale:Henryisspreeding

againfor“Henryisgoingtoofast.”(整体---上限)

＊Upperendofascaleforwholescale:Howoldareyou?For

“Whatisyourage”(上限---整体)

（c）ConstitutionICM(构成转喻)：

Itinvolvesmatter,materialorsubstanceswhichareenas

constitutingathing.

＊Objectformaterialconstitutingtheobject:Ismellskunk（。。。皮

毛）（物体--材料）

＊Materialconstitutinganobjectfortheobject:woodfor

“forest”.(材料--物体)

（d）EventICM:(事件转喻）

Eventmaybemetaphoricallyviewedasthingswhichmayhave

parts.

＊Wholeeventforsub-event（整个--子）

＊Sub-eventforwholeevent(子--整个)

（e）Category-and-MemberICM:(范畴及成员转喻)

Acategoryanditsmembersstandinakindofrelation.

＊Categoryforamemberofthecategory:thepill(口服避孕药)for

“birthcontrolpill”(范畴--成员)

＊Memberofacategoryforthecategory:aspirin(解热镇痛药)

for“anypain-relievingtablet”(成员--范畴)

（f）Category-and-PropertyICM:（范畴及属性转喻）

Propertiesmayeitherbeenmetaphoricallyaspossdobjects

ormetonymicallyaspartsofanobject.

＊Categoryfordefiningproperty:jerk(蠢人)for“stupidity”（愚蠢）

（范畴--属性）.

＊Definingpropertyforcategory:blacksfor“blackpeople”(属性--

范畴)

（g）ReductionICM:

Afinaltypeofa“PartforWhole”metonymyisfoundinthereduction

oftheformofasign.

＊Partofaformforthewholeform:crudefor“crudeoil”.

(2)PartsofanICM:

(a)ActionICM:

Itinvolvesavarietyofparticipantswhichmayberelatedtothe

predicateexpressingtheactionortoteacheachother:

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＊

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