demonstrate

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Reprents描述Define定义Demonstrate论证

Topic1A

Opportunitycost机会成本Thehighest-valuedalternativethatwegiveuptogetsomethingtheopportunitycostofthe

activitychon.我們为了得到一些東西而放弃的

Explicitcost显性成本isacostthatinvolvesactuallylayingoutmoney.花钱

Implicitcost隐性成本doesnotrequireanoutlayofmoney;itismeasuredbythevalue,indollarterms,

ofthebenefitsthatareforgone.非实质性

MarginalBenefit边际收益指如果再多销售一单位的产品将会得到的收益，或目前最后卖出的一单位的产品所得到的

收益。边际收益在实现利润最大化中是一个非常重要的经济量，一般认为当边际收益等于边际成本时企业达到利润最

大化

MarginalCost边际成本isthechangeinthetotalcostthatariswhenthequantityproducedhasanincrementby

unit.指的是每一单位新增生产的产品（或者购买的产品）带来的总成本的增量

MC>MRanincentivetodolessofthatactivity少刺激消费活动

MB>MCanincentivetodomoreofthatactivity多刺激消费活动

ProductionPossibilitiesFrontierPPF生产可能性边界isagraphreprentingproductiontradeoffsofaneconomy

givenfixedresources(假设、概念、图、移动）用来表示经济社会在既定资源和技术条件下所能生产的各种商品最大数

量的组合，反映了资源稀缺性与选择性的经济学特征

Topic2A

Lawofdemand需求法则Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehigherthepriceofagood/rvice,thesmalleristhe

quantitydemanded.假设其他因素不变，当一物品价格增加，其需求量会下降

Lawofsupply供给法则Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehigherthepriceofagood/rvice,thegreateristhequantity

supplied.假设其他因素不变，当一件物品的相对价格上升时，其供给量会上升

Equilibrium平衡Itmeansnoshortageorsurplusinthemarket.市场中没有短缺或过剩

平衡点

Factorsthatbringchangesindemand.使需求变化的因素

Income，Climate[水土,气候]，Ageofthepeople，Technology，Priceofsubstitutes[替代品]，Advertising，Pricesofrelated

goods，Expectedfutureprices，Expectedfutureincome，Preferences[偏好]，Population

Factorsthatbringchangesinsupply.使供给变化的因素。

Climate[水土,气候]，Technology，Expectationsofproducers[生产者期望]，Expectedfutureprices，Thenumberof

suppliers，Pricesofthefactorsofproduction

Shiftsindemandcurveandshiftsinsupplycurve需求曲线的变动和供给曲线的变动

SubstitutesandComplements替代品和互补品

DiminishingMarginalReturns边际效用递减规律isthedecreainthemarginal(incremental)outputof

aproductionprocessastheamountofasinglefactorofproductionisincrementallyincread,whiletheamountsofallother

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factorsofproductionstayconstant.指在投入生产要素后，每单位生产要素所能提供的产量增加发生递减的现象。

消费者剩余（ConsumerSurplus）是指购买者的支付意愿减去购买者的实际支付量。

Topic2B

PriceElasticityofDemand需求价格弹性measurestheresponsivenessofthequantitydemandedtoachangeinprice.

衡量需求的数量随商品的价格的变动而变动的情况。

PriceElasticityofsupply供给价格弹性measurestheresponsivenessofthequantitysuppliedtoachangeinprice.指

供给量相对价格变化作出的反应程度。

Elastic,Unitelastic,Inelastic,Perfectlyelastic,Perfectlyinelastic（根据弹性系数、图形判断）

弹性、单位弹性、非弹性，完全具有弹性，完全无弹性（根据弹性系数、图形判断）

需求价格弹性系数=需求量变动的百分比/价格变动的百分比。设：Q表示一种商品的需求量；P表示该商品的价格；

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DQ表示需求量变动值；DP表示价格变动的数值；Ed表示价格弹性系数，则：Ed=(△Q/Q)/(△P/P）

弹性与价格、收益的关系

※一般降价促销的商品都是需求弹性大于1的,如手机,服装,奢侈品;生活必备品一般是弹性小于1的,如食盐。生活必需品的

需求的价格弹性较小，非必需品的需求的价格弹性较大

恩格尔定律(Engel'slaw)isanobrvationineconomicsstatingthatasincomeris,theproportionofincome

spentonfoodfalls,evenifactualexpenditureonfoodri.一个家庭收入越少，家庭收入中（或总支出中）用来购买

食物的支出所占的比例就越大。

Topic3

Characteristicsofeachmarketstructures每个市场结构特征

Perfectcompetition（完全竞争）:demandcurve需求曲线、

Short-runDecision短期决策是指企业为有效地组织现在的生产经营活动，合理利润经济资源，以期在不远的将来取得

最佳的经济效益而进行的决策

Long-runDecision长期决策

Perfectcompetitivemarket完全自由竞争市场

①买卖众多Manybuyersandllers.②产品同质Allfirmllingidenticalproducts.③进出自由Nobarrierstonewfirms

enteringthemarket.④SellersandbuyersarewellinformedaboutpricesPerfectinformation信息完全

②

Monopoly垄断

①Onesupplier②Producesagoodorrviceforwhichtherearenoclosubstitutes

③Highbarrierstoentry④Firmisapricemaker

MonopolisticCompetition垄断竞争

①Featuresofbothcompetitionandmonopoly②Alargenumberoffirms.③Eachfirmproducesadifferentiatedproduct.④

ProductDifferentiation:Firmscompeteonproductquality,price,listiccompetitivefirmsek

todifferentiatetheirproductsinanyone,oracombination

Oligopoly寡头

①Highbarrierstoentry②Asmallnumberoffirms③Firmsarepricemakers

④Interdependency⑤Temptationtocooperate/collude,toincreajointprofit.

opportunitycost：机会成本，需考虑

sunkcost：沉没成本，不受决策影响的成本，表现为过去已经支付费用或根据过去的决策将来必须支付的费用。

Fixedcost：固定成本，不随产量变化而变化

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Variablecost：可变成本，随产量增加而增加

※长期中，没有固定成本与可变成本之分

Shut-downpoint停止营业点

ØThefirmisindifferentbetweenproducingandshuttingdowntemporarily.

ØTheoutputandpriceatwhichthefirmjustcoversitsTVC.

ØP=AVCisatitsminimum.

ØMCcurvecutsAVCcurve.

ØItincursalosqualtoTFC.

Monopoly(垄断):三级价格歧视PriceDiscrimination价格歧视

一级价格歧视：为每单位产品制定不同的销售价格

二级价格歧视：垄断厂商根据不同的购买数量确立的价格

三级价格歧视：厂商对同一产品在不同的市场上对不同的消费群体收取弹性价格。

Sellingdifferentunitsofagoodorrvicefordifferentprices.

Oligopoly(寡头):TheKinkedDemandCurveModel弯折的需求曲线模型

Topic4A

GDP,methodsofmeasuringGDP(GrossDomesticProduct)衡量国内生产总值的方法

Nominal(名义)GDPistheproductionofgoodsandrvicesvaluedatcurrentprices是用生产物品和劳务的当年价格计算的

全部最终产品的市场价值

Real(实际)GDPisamacroeconomicmeasureofthevalueofeconomicoutputadjustedforpricechanges是用从前某

一年作为基期的价格计算出来的当年全部最终产品的市场价值

Economicgrowth经济增长istheincreainthemarketvalueofthegoodsandrvicesproducedby

aneconomyovertime

Topic4B

Businesscycle经济周期istheperiodicbutirregularup-and-downmovementinproduction.（概念、画图、解释）

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Unemploymentrate失业率isthepercentageofthelabourforcethatisunemployed.

Fourtypesofunemployment四种类型的失业

①Structuralunemployment结构性失业②Frictionalunemployment摩擦性失业

③Cyclicalunemployment周期性失业④Seasonalunemployment季节性失业

Fullemployment充分就业isthatwheneveryonewhowishestoworkatthegoingwage-ratefortheirtypeoflaboris

employed.(Naturalrateofunemployment自然失业率)

Topic5

Inflation通胀isanupwardmovementintheaveragelevelofprices.指一般物价水平在某一时期内，连续性地以相当

的幅度上涨的状态，又称为物价上升。

Differencebetweenanticipated(预期)andunanticipated(非预期)inflation:AnticipatedInflationisinflationthathas

been,onaverage,nanticipatedInflation,isInflationthatcatchespeoplebysurpri.

CPI[ConsumerPriceIndex]消费物价指数measureschangesinthepricelevelofamarketbasketofconsumer

goodsandrvicespurchadbyhouholds.是反映与居民生活有关的产品及劳务价格统计出来的物价变动指标，

以百分比变化为表达形式。

Demandpullinflation需求拉动通货膨胀isinflationthatresultsfromaninitialincreainaggregatedemand.

Costpushinflation成本推动型的通货膨胀isinflationthatresultsfromaninitialincreaincosts.

Wage-pricespiral工资-价格螺旋是一种工资提高了，商品售价也节节升高的现象。

Topic6

Multiplier乘数andMultipliereffect乘数效应isafactorofproportionalitythatmeasureshowmuch

anendogenousvariablechangesinrespontoachangeinsomeexogenousvariable.

Topic7A

TheoriesofInternationaltrade国际贸易理论

①Theoryofabsoluteadvantage(绝对优势理论):Acountryhasanabsoluteadvantageoveranotherintheproductionofa

goodifitcanproduceitwithfewerresources(lowercosts)thantheothercountry

②Theoryofcomparativeadvantage(比较优势理论)：Acountryhasacomparativeadvantageoveranotherintheproductionof

agoodifitcanproduceitataloweropportunitycost(stoforgolessofothergoodsinordertoproduceit)

BalanceofPayments(BOP)国际收支平衡表:

CurrentAccount(经常项目):isoneofthetwocomponentsofitsbalanceofpayments.

※Mainitems:Goods，Services，Income，Currenttransfers(经常项目转移支付)

CapitalAccount(资本项目):isoneoftwoprimarycomponentsofthebalanceofpayments.

※Mainitems:Capitaltransfers(固定资产所有权的转移)[Government&Other]，Acquisition/disposalofnon-produced,

non-financialasts（各种无形资产如专利，版权，商标，经销权以及租赁和其他可转让合同的交易。）

TermsofTrade(贸易条件)：Theratioofexportpricestoimportprices.

进出口比价指数=出口物价指数/进口物价指数

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Tradebarriers(贸易壁垒):①Tariff关税②Subsidies津贴（给本国出口企业）③Quotas配额数量

④Embargoes禁运数量⑤Cartels卡特尔⑥Nontariffbarriers非关税壁垒（技术壁垒、环保）

Argumentsinfavorofrestrictingtrade(限制贸易的争论)：

①Infantindustryargument②Toreducerelianceofforeigngoods③Toprevent‘dumping[倾销]’andotherunfairtrade

practices④Topreventtheimportationofharmfulgoods⑤Toreducetheinfluenceofatradeonconsumerstastes⑤To

takeaccountofexternalities⑥Topreventtheestablishmentofaforeign-badmonopoly

Argumentsinfavoroffreetrade(支持自由贸易观点):

a)importanceofinternationaltrade;国际贸易的重要性

➢IncreaexportsleadtoanincreaGDP.

➢Increaineconomicgrowth.

➢Increainemploymentopportunitiesforlocals.

➢Export-orientedindustrieshavetheopportunitytoenternewmarketsallowingthemto:growinsize;

encouragingspecialisationoftasks;economiesofscale.

b)problemsofprotection保护问题&Argumentsagainsttradeprotection支持反对贸易保护

①Protectionas‘cond-best’②Retaliation报复③Bureaucracy官僚主义

④Protectionmayallowfirmstoremaininefficient.效率低下

Topic7B

Exchangerates:Thevalueofonecurrency’scurrencyintermsofanothercountry’scurrency.

Fixedexchangerate固定汇率（1944，布雷顿森林体系）Acountry’sgovernmentorcentralbanktxchangerates

Floatingexchangerate浮动汇率（1976，牙买加体系）Setbytheinteractionoftheforcesofdemandandsupply

(1)Cleanfloat:nogovernmentintervention清洁浮动(2)Dirtyfloat:governmentintervention肮脏浮动

Managedexchangerate管理汇率Basicallytthedemandandsupply,butwithinterventionbycentralbanktoinfluencethe

rate.

Demandandsupplyinexchangemarket(需求和供给的外汇市场):能分别说明以下3个因素对一国货币的需求、供给产生

什么影响——对汇率产生何种影响

Interestrate利率Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehighertheexchangerate,thesmalleristhequantityofcurrency

demandedintheexchangemarket.

Exportandimport进出口Otherthingsremainingthesame,theappreciation[升值]ofthecurrencyincreasthequantityof

export，thedepreciation[贬值]ofthecurrencydecreasthequantityofimport.

Expectedfutureexchangerate预期未来汇率的变动Otherthingsremainingthesame,thehighertheExpectedfutureexchange

rate,thebiggeristhequantityofcurrencydemandedintheexchangemarket.

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Figure7.5BUsingadiagramexplaintheconceptoftheLawofSupply

Topic8

Monetarypolicyinstruments(货币政策工具):

Rerveastratios法定准备金率(RARs),

Openmarketoperations(OMOs)公开市场操作isanactivitybyacentralbanktobuyorllgovernmentbondsonthe

openmarket.

Easymonetarypolicy(宽松的货币政策)

Aim:Provideeconomicstimulus,whentheeconomyisinarecession,

How:①Centralbankbuysbonds②ESAbalancesri③CashRatedecrea

④↑Creditavailability&↑(MS)⑤Interestratesdecrea

Tightmonetarypolicy(从紧的货币政策):

Aim:Slowtheeconomydown,whentheeconomyisoverheating.

How:①Centralbankllsbonds②ESAbalancesfall③CashRateris

④↓Creditavailability&↓(MS)⑤Interestratesri

Topic9A

Budgetbalance:budgetsurplus,budgetdeficit,balancedbudget

预算平衡：财政预算盈余，预算赤字、平衡预算

DiscretionaryFiscalPolicy(审慎的财政政策):Changesintax,spendingpolicyrequiringlegislative,oradministrative

actionbythegovernmentorParliament.

Non-DiscretionaryFiscalPolicy(非审慎的财政政策):Built-in(Automatic)stabilirs自动稳定器

①Progressivetaxand累进税率制度②unemploymentbenefitsystems失业救济制度

Expansionaryfiscalpolicy(扩张性财政政策):

Aim：①Toprovideaneconomicstimulusandreturneconomytofullemployment②Uwhenarecessionarygapexists

How：①IncreaGovernmentExpenditure②DecreaTaxes③Combinationofbothmeasures

Effect：①IncreasGDP②Reducesrecessionarygap③Reduceunemployment

④Resultsinbudgetdeficitifbudgetwasbalanced

Contractionaryfiscalpolicy(紧缩性的财政政策):

Aim：①Toslowtheeconomydownandreturntofullemployment②Uwhenainflationarygapexists

How：①DecreaGovernmentExpenditure②IncreaTaxes③Combinationofbothmeasures

Effect：①ReduceGDP②ReducesInflationarygap③Resultsinbudgetsurplusifbudgetwasbalanced

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Topic9B

Microeconomicreform微观经济改革Governmentpolicieswhichderegulate,orre-regulatemarketsforgoods,

rvicesorfactorsofproduction.

Objectivesofmicroeconomicreform微观经济改革的目标

①Toraithesupplypotentialoftheeconomy

②Microeconomicreformaimstoreduceinterferencewithpricesignalsinthelabourandproductsmarketsinorderto

increacompetitionandthereforeenhancingallocativeeconomicefficiency,operationalefficiency,anddynamic

efficiency.

③Stabiliexternaldebtandincreatheefficiencywithwhichthecapitalstockisud,reducingdemandon

domesticsavingwithoutreducinglivingstandards.

Deregulation(解除管制)：istheremovalofadministrativeprocesswhicheitherformedabarriertoentryinamarketor

preventedamarketfromoperatingefficiently.

※Example①Telecommunications②Airlines(1990)③FinancialSector(late1980’s)

Privatization(私有化)：istheprocessoftakingaGBE(GovernmentBusinessEnterpri)andputtingitintopublichands.

※Example：Prisonsystem，Airports，Electricity

Tariffs(关税)：nagreementwithAPEC,manycountriesagreedtotryandphaoutall

tariffs

Competitionpolicy(竞争政策):isthatpromotesorekstomaintainmarketcompetitionby

regulatinganti-competitiveconductbycompanies.

Topic10市场失灵

MarketFailure:Theinabilityofanunregulatedmarkettoachieveallocativeefficiencyinallcircumstances.

表现：(1)thereexistsmonopolyorimperfectcompetitionmarket,makeitsarenotalwaysproducethemosteffectiveresults.

(2)themarketbehavioroftheexternalitiesmayproducenegativespillovereffect.

(3)themarketmechanismcanguaranteethesupplyofpublicgoods.

(4)theincompletenessofthemarketinformationorasymmetrycaudbytheuncertaintyintheeconomy.

(5)marketasaresultoftheincomedistributioneffectsonpoliticalormoralcan'tacceptit.

Publicgoods:Goodsandrvicesthatwouldnotbeprovidedbythemarketsystem,astheyareinvisible.

Characteristics:①Indivisible②Non-exclusive③Non-competitive

结果:Sincerevenuecannotbecollected“accordingtousage”,mentswill

otproportionaltou.

措施:Governmentswillprovidepublicgoodsbytaxingthepublic.

举例:Theexcessiveuofpublicresources;Trafficjam;Fishinginopena；Examplesofpublicgoodsare:

Roads,streetlighting,parks,publictoilets,andthervicesprovidedbypoliceandnationaldefen.

FreeRiding:Usingpublicgoodswithoutpaying.

Externality(外部性):istheeffectonathirdpartywhoisnotpartofthetransaction

Negative负外部性

结果：①Marginalsocialcost>Marginalprivatecost②Costofproductionisnotbornebyfirms

③Societypaysthecostofprivateproduction④Pollution

举例：①Smoking②Toxicwaste③Airpollution④Burningfossilfuels

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措施：①Taxes②Emissioncharges③Licens④Marketablepermits

Positive正外部性

结果：①Marginalsocialbenefit>Marginalprivatebenefit②Quantityproducedislessthantheamountsocietydesires.

③Societydoesnotrealizeallthebenefitsassociatedwithfirm’sproduction.

举例：①Neighbours’tidiness②Education③TechnologySpillover

措施：①Subsidizingproduction②Forexamplesubsidizingeducationwillensuregreaterpositiveexternalitiesarerealized.

Distributionofincome(收入分配)：纠正收入分配不公的措施

①Provisionofbasicgoodsandrvices②Transferpayments

③Progressiveincometax④Othertaxes