flemish

1 

Chapter 2 

The Development of the English Vocabulary 

I. The Indo-European Language Family 

1) Armenian 

2) Albanian Prussian

普鲁士语

Lithuanian

立陶宛语

Polish

波兰语

3) Balto-Slavic Czech

捷克

Bulgarian

保加利亚语

Slovenian

斯洛文尼亚语

Russian

俄罗斯语

an Eastern t Persian

波斯语

Bengali 

孟加拉语

4) Indo-Iranian Hindi 

北印度语

Romany

吉普赛语

Scottish

苏格兰语

Irish

爱尔兰语

1) Celtic Welsh

威尔士

Breton

布列塔尼语

Pictish

皮克特语

Portugue

葡萄牙语

Spanish

西班牙语

2)Italic French

法语

Italian

意大利语

Rumanian

罗马尼亚语

The Indo-European 3) Hellenic: Greek is the modern language 

derived from Hellenic 

Language Family an Western Set English

英语

German

德语

4) Germanic Dutch

荷兰语

Flemish

弗来芒语

Norwegian 

Icelandic 

Scandinavian languages Danish 

Swedish 

5)Hittite 

6) Tocharian 

2 

II. A Brief History of English Words 

English 

English has 

has 

has a 

a 

a history 

history 

history of 

of 

of only 

only 

only 1,500 

1,500 

1,500 years, 

years, 

years, developing 

developing 

developing from 

from 

from a 

a 

a local 

local 

local language language 

spoken by a small number of people on a small island about the middle of the fifth 

century. But now English is one of the most important languages in the world, spoken 

by more than 370 million people as a first language in the United Kingdom, the USA, 

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the West Indies and South Africa. And another 300 

million 

million people 

people 

people u 

u 

u English 

English 

English as 

as 

as a 

a 

a cond 

cond 

cond language 

language 

language or 

or 

or official 

official 

official language, 

language, 

language, or 

or 

or as 

as 

as the the 

medium 

medium of 

of 

of instruction 

instruction 

instruction in 

in 

in school 

school 

school and 

and 

and universities 

universities 

universities in 

in 

in tho 

tho 

tho countries, 

countries, 

countries, English 

English 

English has 

has 

has a a 

important position, it is estimated that the number of speakers with varying degrees of 

proficiency range between 800 million and 1 billion throughout the world. 

The 

The English 

English 

English words 

words 

words that 

that 

that we 

we 

we u 

u 

u everyday 

everyday 

everyday are 

are 

are derived 

derived 

derived from 

from 

from a 

a 

a wide 

wide 

wide range 

range 

range of of 

sources, mostly within the Indo-European family of language. The English vocabulary 

can 

can generally divided into generally divided into 

native words, 

native words, borrowed words 

from 

from other languages and other languages and 

hybrid words which we will discuss in the following. 

Celtic 

Native Elements 

The Angles-Saxons-Jutes Period 

A History of 

English Words 

Latin Influences on Old English 

The Scandinavian Influence 

Middle English 

Borrowed Elements The Norman Conquest and French 

Loanwords 

The Early Modern English Period 

The Re-establishment of English 

Modern English 

Hybrid Words 

1. Native Elements 

(1)Celtic (Pre-English Period---- 450AD) 

The first people in England are the Celts. They were the native inhabitants of the 

Britain. The Celtic languages were once spoken across Europe, they were driven to 

the 

the north-west 

north-west 

north-west fringe 

fringe 

fringe of 

of 

of Europe. 

Europe. 

Europe. At 

At 

At the 

the 

the time 

time 

time of 

of 

of Roman 

Roman 

Roman invasion, 

invasion, 

invasion, the 

the 

the indigenous indigenous 

languages of Britain were Celtic. Celtic was probably the first indo-European tongue 

3 

to be spoken in England. 

In 

In the 

the 

the summer 

summer 

summer of 

of 

of 55 

55 

55 B.C. 

B.C. 

B.C. the 

the 

the Romans 

Romans 

Romans conqueror, 

conqueror, 

conqueror, Julius 

Julius 

Julius Caesar 

Caesar 

Caesar made 

made 

made Latin 

Latin 

Latin an an 

official language of culture 

and 

and government. 

government. 

government. The Celts in The Celts in 

England had 

England had enjoyed the 

benefit 

benefit of 

of 

of Roman 

Roman 

Roman government 

government 

government (55BC---410AD), 

(55BC---410AD), 

(55BC---410AD), worshipped 

worshipped 

worshipped in 

in 

in Christian 

Christian 

Christian churches, churches, 

and spoke a certain extent, at least, the Latin language by social elite. The Romans 

never 

never penetrated 

penetrated 

penetrated far 

far 

far into 

into 

into the 

the 

the mountains 

mountains 

mountains of 

of 

of Wales 

Wales 

Wales and 

and 

and Scotland 

Scotland 

Scotland in 

in 

in the 

the 

the cour 

cour 

cour of of 

Romanization of the 

Island, so the Celtic survived, but 

Island, so the Celtic survived, but the Celts had not their own 

written language. Now we could e some of the place names are from the Celtic, e.g. 

Thames 

Thames River

, 

River, London, 

London, 

London, Ben 

Ben 

Ben Nevis 

Nevis 

Nevis .

And 

And we 

we 

we could 

could 

could say 

say 

say that 

that 

that Latin 

Latin 

Latin spoken 

spoken 

spoken rather rather 

extensively for centuries before the coming of English. 

(2)The Angles-Saxons-Jutes Period (450AD-1100AD) 

As to its origin, the English language is as humble and obscure. It was brought by 

the German tribes-Jutes, Angles, and Saxons, who conquered the island in the 5

th

century (449AD), and became the founders of the English nation. The result was the 

known 

known as 

as 

as Anglo-Saxon 

Anglo-Saxon 

Anglo-Saxon Period 

Period 

Period or 

or 

or Old 

Old 

Old English 

English 

English Period. 

Period. 

Period. Now 

Now 

Now in 

in 

in word 

word 

word ““

English

English””

, 

, the the 

“

Engl-

Engl-””

goes 

goes back 

back 

back to 

to 

to the 

the 

the Angles, 

Angles, 

Angles, the 

the 

the ““

-ish

-ish””

means 

means ““

belonging 

belonging to

to

to””

, 

, so 

so 

so the 

the 

the language language 

belonged to the “

Angles-

Angles-”” the “

Angle-ish

Angle-ish”” language. 

The English language of today is the language that resulted from the history of the 

dialects spoken by the three Germanic tribes, and the subquent mixture of the three 

people. 

people. The 

The 

The vocabulary 

vocabulary 

vocabulary of 

of 

of Old 

Old 

Old English 

English 

English is 

is 

is almost 

almost 

almost purely 

purely 

purely Germanic. 

Germanic. 

Germanic. English 

English 

English is is 

classified 

as 

as a 

a 

a Germanic Germanic language 

to 

to which which German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, 

Swedish, and Norwegian also belong. It shares with the languages similar 

grammatical 

grammatical structure 

structure 

structure and 

and 

and many 

many 

many common 

common 

common words. 

words. 

words. About 

About 

About 20-30 

20-30 

20-30 percent 

percent 

percent of 

of 

of English English 

vocabulary is the Angles-Saxons words. So the Angles-Saxons words are considered 

to be the native English words and the core of English vocabulary. 

2. Borrowed Elements 

(1) Latin Influences on Old English (579AD-1150AD) 

Latin 

Latin influenced 

influenced 

influenced English 

English 

English through 

through 

through Celtic 

Celtic 

Celtic transmission 

transmission 

transmission and 

and 

and Chiristianizing 

Chiristianizing 

Chiristianizing of of 

Britain. With the introduction of Christianity into Britain, the Latin influence was not 

only 

only extensive, 

extensive, 

extensive, but 

but 

but thorough 

thorough 

thorough and 

and 

and marks 

marks 

marks the 

the 

the real 

real 

real beginning 

beginning 

beginning of 

of 

of the 

the 

the English 

English 

English habit 

habit 

habit of of 

freely incorporating foreign elements into its vocabulary. 

And more than half of prent words in common u are derived from Latin ud 

in military and official class, cities and towns. By means of prefixes and suffixes, a 

single root is made to yield a variety of derivative and the range of the is greatly 

extended by the ea with which compound are formed. So the noun, the adjective, 

the definite article, the personal pronoun, the verb, and preposition express 

fundamental concepts, especially the ideas of scientific and learned character. It was 

more resourceful in utilizing its native material than Modern English, which has come 

to rely to a large extent on its facility in borrowing and assimilating elements from 

other language, e.g. 

church--- abbot/ bishop/ monk/ pope/ priest/ temple/ rule 

clothing and houhold----cap/ chest/ mat/ purple/ sack/ silk/ sock 

food----pear/ lobster/ cook 

animals----elephant/ camel/ tiger 

4 

education 

education and 

and 

and learning----learning----

school/ 

school/ grammar/ 

grammar/ 

grammar/ meter/ 

meter/ 

meter/ master/ 

master/ 

master/ noon/ 

noon/ 

noon/ anthem/ anthem/ 

angel/ ver/ gloss/ circle/ talent 

(2)The Scandinavian Influence (c.9-c.11) 

Scandinavia elements that entered into English language are such as would make 

their way into it through the give-and-take of everyday life. The earliest loans referred 

specifically to objects and concepts related to Danish culture, including for boats, for 

currency, for warriors and place-names. The number of Scandinavian words, 

according to “English Dialect Dictionary”, there are 1150 simple words were Danish 

element. Many words with “sc/sh-, sk-” are Scandinavian origin, e.g. 

Noun---- 

bank/ 

bank/ birth/ 

birth/ 

birth/ bull/ 

bull/ 

bull/ dirt/ 

dirt/ 

dirt/ down/ 

down/ 

down/ egg/ 

egg/ 

egg/ fellow/ 

fellow/ 

fellow/ gap/ 

gap/ 

gap/ guess/ 

guess/ 

guess/ kid/ 

kid/ 

kid/ leg/ 

leg/ 

leg/ skirt/ skirt/ 

sister/ skin/ trust/ want/ window 

Adjective----awkward/flat/ low/ odd/ rugged/ tight/ weak 

Verb---- call/ die/ get/ give/ lift/ rai/ take 

(3)Middle English----Period of Great Change (1100AD-1500AD) 

The change of this period affected English in 

both 

both its its grammar and vocabulary. 

Tho 

Tho in 

in 

in the 

the 

the vocabulary 

vocabulary 

vocabulary involved 

involved 

involved the 

the 

the loss 

loss 

loss of 

of 

of a 

a 

a large 

large 

large part 

part 

part of 

of 

of the 

the 

the Old 

Old 

Old English English 

word-stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and Latin. 

(4)The Norman Conquest and French Loanwords (1066AD-1500AD) 

In 1066AD, Britain was conquered by Normans. Through the influence of 

Norman 

Norman French, 

French, 

French, the 

the 

the Old 

Old 

Old English 

English 

English period 

period 

period gradually 

gradually 

gradually ended. 

ended. 

ended. The 

The 

The Norman 

Norman 

Norman conquerors conquerors 

spoke 

spoke French, 

French, 

French, so 

so 

so French 

French 

French words 

words 

words were 

were 

were borrowed 

borrowed 

borrowed directly 

directly 

directly and 

and 

and obrvably, 

obrvably, 

obrvably, affected affected 

English 

English vocabulary 

vocabulary 

vocabulary and 

and 

and spelling. 

spelling. 

spelling. English 

English 

English and 

and 

and French 

French 

French elements 

elements 

elements are 

are 

are mixed. 

mixed. 

mixed. French French 

words were borrowed from a wide range of different areas: government, law, hunting, 

sport, social relationship, morals, fashion, cuisine, etc. 

Despite the many French loanwords, English remains English, the very heart of 

the vocabulary remained English. Middle English is characterized both by its greater 

French vocabulary and by the loss of inflections. However by the end of the Middle 

English period, only two of the inflections remained in u, “

-es

-es”” for plural nouns 

and the past ten marker “-ed”. 

(5)The Early Modern English Period (1500AD- 1700AD) 

This 

This is 

is 

is a 

a 

a period 

period 

period of 

of 

of loss 

loss 

loss inflections. 

inflections. 

inflections. We 

We 

We know 

know 

know that 

that 

that the 

the 

the influence 

influence 

influence of 

of 

of Latin 

Latin 

Latin and and 

Greek 

Greek in 

in 

in this 

this 

this period 

period 

period was 

was 

was great 

great 

great by 

by 

by social 

social 

social elite, 

elite, 

elite, but 

but 

but not 

not 

not ud 

ud 

ud by 

by 

by the 

the 

the majority 

majority 

majority of 

of 

of the the 

population. The great humanistic movement of Renaissance took place at the period 

and incread activity in almost every field; the printing press; the reading habit; the 

rapid spread of popular education; the incread commerce, transportation and rapid 

means of communication----books, magazines and newspapers; the growth of 

specialized 

specialized knowledge 

knowledge 

knowledge and 

and 

and the 

the 

the emergence 

emergence 

emergence of 

of 

of various 

various 

various forms 

forms 

forms of 

of 

of lf-consciousness lf-consciousness 

about language; the reform of church etc. The social, commercial, technological, and 

intellectual 

intellectual force 

force 

force relead 

relead 

relead in 

in 

in the 

the 

the Renaissance, 

Renaissance, 

Renaissance, had 

had 

had profound 

profound 

profound effects 

effects 

effects on 

on 

on the 

the 

the English. English. 

The result was a healthy desire for improvement of new words in various technical 

fields, where English was notable weak. The great number of new and strange words 

was borrowed from Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish etc. e.g.

①

from Latin and Greek: words relating technical, biological, legal and medical 

names and terminology, e.g. 

5 

education----act, animal, cherries, church, cup, describe, discuss, dish, disability, 

equal, exist, expect, graduate, piazza, street, wall, wine, violin…

literature----

anthology, 

anthology, catastrophe, 

catastrophe, 

catastrophe, comedy, 

comedy, 

comedy, drama, 

drama, 

drama, emphasis, 

emphasis, 

emphasis, magic, 

magic, 

magic, myth, myth, 

poet, rhythm, tactics, tragedy…

philology and maths----basis, geometry, category, ethics, thesis, theory, 

hypotenu

hypotenu……

biology, physics and chemist----bulb, dynamo,organism, pneumatics, 

thermometer

thermometer……

medicine 

medicine and 

and 

and science----science----cancer, cleaner, 

diagnosis, 

diagnosis, neuralgia, 

neuralgia, 

neuralgia, phonograph, phonograph, 

rheumatism, telephone, television…

linguistics----antonym, dialect, euphemism, etymology, homonym, idiom, 

lexicology, metaphor, metonymy, polymy…

affixes---- auto-, bio-, geo-, tele-, photo-; -able, -ible, -al, -id, -ism, -ist, -ive, -ize, 

-oid, -logy, -ology, -ous, -tics…

②

from French: French language altered the English vocabulary much 

in 

in the the 

governmental, administrative, law, army, navy, art, learning, medicine, fashion, meals 

and social life words. 

government 

government and 

and 

and administrative 

administrative 

administrative words----words----

alliance, 

alliance, authority, authority, 

court, 

court, crown, crown, 

empire, governor, justice, judge, jury, liberty, majesty, minister, noble, office, peasant, 

prince, public, royal, slave, rvant, state, tax, treaty…

religion 

religion and 

and 

and ecclesiastical 

ecclesiastical 

ecclesiastical words----words----

charity, 

charity, clergy, 

clergy, 

clergy, confession, 

confession, 

confession, creator

, 

creator, faith, faith, 

mercy, miracle, mystery, passion, prayer, sacrifice, rmon, solemn, virtue…

law----accu, arrest, complaint, decree, evidence, heir, proof, prison, property, 

ntence, summons…

army 

army and 

and 

and military----military----

arms, 

arms, battle, 

battle, 

battle, captain, 

captain, 

captain, conquest, 

conquest, 

conquest, defen, 

defen, 

defen, enemy, 

enemy, 

enemy, guard, guard, 

mail, peace, soldier, spy, victory…

literature----copy, grammar, logic, preface, prologue, pro, title, volume…

clothes---button, coat, collar, dress, embroidery, robe…

food----

appetite, 

appetite, biscuit, 

biscuit, 

biscuit, beef, 

beef, 

beef, feast, 

feast, 

feast, fruit, 

fruit, 

fruit, grape, 

grape, 

grape, lemon, 

lemon, 

lemon, olives, 

olives, 

olives, orange, peach, orange, peach, 

pork, plate, roast, mutton, sugar, supper, toast, taste…

art----figure, painting, palace, music, sculpture, tone…

science---- physician, patient, poison, pul, remedy, surgeon…

fashion and social 

life----

life----

blanket, 

blanket, boots, chair, boots, chair, curtain, diamond, jewel, pearl, 

screen, train…

(6)The Re-establishment of English 

Conditions 

Conditions were changed after 1200. were changed after 1200. 

It 

It was was succeeded by a conflict of interests 

and a growing feeling of antagonism that culminated in a long period of open hostility 

with France. “The Hundred Years’ War ”(1337-1453) between England and France 

was one of the caus to u English as the language of the country. 

English began to be ud in the schools, in the law courts and writing, and become 

the 

the standard 

standard 

standard English 

English 

English both 

both 

both speech 

speech 

speech and 

and 

and writing 

writing 

writing toward 

toward 

toward the 

the 

the end 

end 

end of 

of 

of the 

the 

the 1414

th

century. 

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340-1400) 

vividly 

vividly reflected the changes in reflected the changes in 

his 

his English words. English words. 

And in the later part of the 15

th

 century London Standard had been accepted as the 

Standard 

Standard English 

English 

English and 

and 

and in 

in 

in the 

the 

the 1616

th

century, 

century, the 

the 

the u 

u 

u of 

of 

of London 

London 

London English 

English 

English had 

had 

had become 

become 

become a a 

6 

matter 

matter of 

of 

of precept 

precept 

precept as 

as 

as well 

well 

well as 

as 

as practice. 

practice. 

practice. By 

By 

By the 

the 

the end 

end 

end of 

of 

of 1717thcentury, 

century, Britain 

Britain 

Britain grew grew 

commercially and acquired overas colonies. English was taken to the American and 

India. 

India. With 

With 

With the 

the 

the ri 

ri 

ri of 

of 

of printing, 

printing, 

printing, English 

English 

English acquired 

acquired 

acquired a 

a 

a stable 

stable 

stable typographic 

typographic 

typographic identity. identity. 

Shakespeare 

Shakespeare is 

is 

is the 

the 

the greatest 

greatest 

greatest writer 

writer 

writer in 

in 

in this 

this 

this period. 

period. 

period. It 

It 

It is 

is 

is noted 

noted 

noted that 

that 

that Shakespeare

Shakespeare

Shakespeare’’s 

vocabulary of over 30,000 words. During 18

th

 century, many foreign loans continued 

to enter the English vocabulary. 

(7)Modern English--- the Last Two Centuries (the 19

th

 ---- 20

th

 centuries) 

Great 

Great political 

political 

political and 

and 

and social 

social 

social events 

events 

events influences 

influences 

influences affected 

affected 

affected the 

the 

the English 

English 

English language. 

language. 

language. The The 

expansion of English vocabulary is amazingly rapid. The reasons are: 

l

the success of the British on the a in the cour of the Napoleonic Wars 

l

the war against Russia in Crimea 

l

the contest with princes in India 

l

great reform measures 

l

the establishment of the first cheap paper 

lthe 

the improved 

improved 

improved means 

means 

means of 

of 

of travel 

travel 

travel and 

and 

and communication 

communication 

communication brought 

brought 

brought about 

about 

about by 

by 

by the the 

railroad, the steamboat, the telegraph 

l

the growth of England’s larger colonies 

l

the rapid development of the United States 

l

the rapid development of modern science and technology 

l

political, economic and social changes 

Most 

Most of 

of 

of the 

the 

the new 

new 

new words 

words 

words have 

have 

have come 

come 

come into 

into 

into English 

English 

English by 

by 

by borrowings 

borrowings 

borrowings which 

which 

which have have 

extended the vocabulary of the language and formed the cosmopolitan character of the 

English vocabulary. Thousands of new words are added, existing words acquire new 

meanings, and old words die out, e.g. 

medicine----AIDS, aspirin, bacteriology, carbohydrates, cholesterol, metabolism, 

morphine

morphine……

science----atomic energy, black hole, DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid), relativity…

automobile, 

automobile, film, 

film, 

film, broadcasting, 

broadcasting, 

broadcasting, computer----computer----

cartoon, 

cartoon, cinema, 

cinema, 

cinema, loudspeaker, loudspeaker, 

highway, microphone, PC, three-D, VCR…