法律英语课文总结-何家弘

法律英语课文总结-何家弘

LessonOne:LegalSystem法律制度

PartOne

ew

nationcomparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitis

constantlybeingrenewedbytheadditionofnewelementsofpopulationandofnew

eoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstoneto

heoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldest

continuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofself-governmentofanynation.

OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericansyouthisthatthewholeofitshistory

leofitshistory

is,therefore,recorded:indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhasso

comprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchas

thosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartofthe

Americanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;

acesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraandoftheationsince

1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricatenetworkofrelationships

,totakeaveryelementaryexample,thereportsofthe

UnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthereportsofsomeStatesare

almostequallyvoluminous:thereaderwhowantstotracethehistoryoflawinAmerica

isconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.

oonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthe

nhundredsandthousandsof

documentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearightto

ndredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddress

themselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearightto

readfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.

PartTwo

TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselaw

eldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensive

andsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretation

dgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueof

workingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingof

Americanlawandlegalmethodology.

TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocal

enforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,

withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similar

texisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;

therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,stem

becameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"(1258)prohibitedthecreationofnew

writs,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthecase"allowedandwhichlater

ledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.

Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledto

thedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaningof

doing"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterby

hisChancelloras"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",toaffordreliefinhardshipcases.

Inthefifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoan

independentlegalsystemandjudiciary(CourtofChancery)whichcompetedwiththe

esandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,

lcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:reliefin

theformofspecificperformance(incontrasttothecommonlawawardof

compensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoa

specificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeatedthe

entirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.

However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefis

tance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbe

grantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannot

compensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.

Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicial

,bothlegalsystemshave

beenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithewYorkin1848),with

theresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellasin

wStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.

evertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,onthe

onehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts

(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty)and,ontheotherhand,itisstill

relevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarighttoa

trialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethejudge).

Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"ordinary"commonlawrelief

ofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedyofspecific

performanceisavailable.

"Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudge-madelawandtodayincludescommon

eciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"

and"caselaw"areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthis

usageconnotingjudge-madelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Case

law"alwaysconnotesjudg-madelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--dependingon

themeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubject

mattersor,

LessonTwo：LegalProfession法律职业

PartOne：TheBar

Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachof

quirethreeyearsof

ateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationto

allstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,

adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessay

enticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeor

afteradmission.

Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyer

maytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereone

r,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmitted

withoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedfor

sometime,oftenfiveyears.

Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatis

tuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboards

ofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyin

rremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,an

employeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,and

ivelysmallnumberof

lawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.

Themobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionisevidenced

bythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessfulewYork

lawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,AttorneyGeneralofthe

UnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.

tinction

betweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,

andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappear

incourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegalinstruments.

TheAmericanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,anddrafting.

Furthermore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"practiceoflaw"thedomainis

ieldofadvocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:

anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withtheexceptionofafew

inferiorcourts,yersare,however,

authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicialnaturebeforesome

esofdemarcationarelessclearintheareasof

counsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeof

r,thestrict

approachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofewYorkshighest

courtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinewYorkis

prohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinewYork,eventhoughtheadviceis

gnlawyer

may,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeing

admitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasaconsultantonforeignlaw.

PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePractice

Amongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.

Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.

Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedto

endtowardgroup

houtmostofthenineteenthcenturylaw

practicewasgeneralratherthanspecialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyrather

thancounsellinganddrafting,andtheprototypeoftheAmericanlawyerwasthesingle

specializationbeganinthelatterpartofthatcenturyinthelarge

egrowthofbigbusiness,biggovernment,and

biglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftotheneedsofclientsforexpert

tlawyerswere

attractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersonswhorarelyifever

appearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,andnegotiators.

Todaythelawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuouslyfamiliarwithclients

busine

businesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceofcounsel.

PartThree:HouseCounsel

Outofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchas

industrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseor

wthofcorporations,the

complexityofbusiness,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernmentregulation

makeitdesirableforsuchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegaltrainingwho,

atthesametime,areintimatelyfamiliarwiththeparticularproblemsandconditionsof

ecorporationsthelegaldepartmentmaynumberonehundredormore.

Thegeneralcounsel,whoheadstheoffice,isusuallyanofficerofthecompanyand

mayserveonimportantpolicymakingcommitteesandperhapsevenontheboardof

ounselremainmembersofthebarandareentitledtoappearincourt,

r,itisthehouse

ntlyin

sproblems,housecounselisideallysituatedtopracticetouchwiththeemployer

preventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompanyonitsbroader

obligationtothepublicandthenation.

PartFour：LawyersinGovernment

Aparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyers

arenowemployeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,exclusive

thoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlawgraduateswho

findgovernmentsalariessufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheircareersandseek

tionson

topsalaries,however,

majorityservesbyappointmentinthelegaldepartmentsofavarietyoffederalandstate

tedStatesDepartmentofJusticealoneemploys

morethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentoftheCityofewYorkmorethan

lprosecutors,the

UnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedbythePresidentandare

rosecutors,sometimes

knownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeachcountyandarenotunder

e,lawyersingovernmentaredirectly

engagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequentlysoughtaspreparationfor

r,asmallbutimportantminoritythatconstitutes

anexceptiontothisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeenappointedtohighexecutive

theparticipation

oflawyersingovernmenthasdeclinedrecently,fortwocenturieslawyershavemade

up

figuresbearoutthecommentofChiefJusticeStonethat,"otraditionofour

professionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofitsleadershipinpublicaffairs."

LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育

In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccreditedlaw

schoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;private

lawschoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;and

loc

virtuallytheonlywaytoprepareformembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschoolsin

theUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctionsincludingprofessionaltrainingand

socializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningandgatekeepingforentrancetothe

hereisnocentralinstitutionwherealllawyerspractice,theonly

institutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislawschool.

Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschoolshave

carriedoutthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,

divers

criticismshavefocussedonthecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;the

distributionofpowerandprestigereflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelaw

schools;andtheimbalanceintermsofwomenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyand

facultyinthelawschools.

PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethod

Thetraditionalfirst-yearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschoolsincludes

contracts,torts,property,Kennedyhas

describedthetraditionalfirst-yearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingthegroundrulesfor

ondyearandthirdyearcourse

expoundthemoderatereformistewDealprogramandtheadministrativestructureof

ipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,includelegal

philosophy,legalhistory,legalprocess,andclinicaleducation,a"kindofplayground

orfinishingschoolforlearningthesocialartofselfpresentationasalawyer".

However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporary

issuesandproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecourses

andclinicalprogramsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,women`s

rights,healthintheworkplace,realso

increasingeffortstoteachlawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonother

disciplinessuchashistory,psychology,sociology,medicine,andeconomics.

Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsuseto

pedinthe1870sby

ChristopherColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlookedto

thecommonlawasthesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingofan

alprincipleselicitedweretobe

taughtdivorcedfromthe"grubbyworldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,

economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrowformalisticapproachwasjustifiedonthe

groundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,evaluateandcompareconcrete

factsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsofanalysis,reasoning,and

expression.

However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedas

havinganadverseimpactbothonthestudentsandthequalityoffuturelawyering.

Students,lawteachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityand

rowand

destructiveinteractionofthisdialogue,oroften"nodialogue",contributestothe

impairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutotherpeople,aprofessionalunemotionalismand

snotonlythelawstudentswhosufferfrom

kofalawyerinvolvescontinuous

contactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,othersaffectedby

thelaw,andinvolvesthelawyer’sowngoals,attitudes,performance,andsenseof

satisfaction.

PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchy

DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",

characterizedbya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesatthe

expenseofforests."Thelawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideologicaltraining

forwillingserviceinthehierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Intherankingand

evaluationofstudents,studentslearntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchywhichis

presentedasjustandinevitableand"sopreparethemselvesforallthehierarchiesto

follow".Inthelawteachersmodelingofhierarchicalrelationshipswithstudents,

colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,studentslearnaparticularstyleof

condescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowardsperceivedsuperiors.

Andunderthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,

middle

middle

classtone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,and

class,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,partly

outofgenuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legaleducationisone

ducationsupportsitbyanalogy,providesita

generallegitimatingideologybyjustifyingtherulesthatunderlieit,andprovidesita

ducationstructuresthepool

ofprospectivelawyerssothattheirhierarchicalorganizationseemsinevitable,and

trainsthemtolookandthinkandactjustlikealltheotherlawyersinthesystem".

InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,other

analysesofthelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggestthe

dozenorsoelitelawschools

occupyapositionofpowerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessional

careerpathsoftheirgraduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelaw

elsofthe"lawschoolasthe

gatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecamepossiblewiththeewDeal".Felix

Frankfurter’splacementnetworkforthe"bestandthebrightest"intoinfluentialpublic

policypositionsduringtheewDealinthe1930swasanearlyexampleofthiskindof

histenureatHarvardandlaterwhileontheSupremeCourt,Frankfurter

developedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolvedwiththeplacementof

manyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,

typicalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLawSchool,politicallyliberal,

usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobviousproductofupperclassgentile

cultureoranobviousproductofaradicallydifferentculturewhowas'comfortable'in

theupperclassgentileworld".

Inthecurrenthiringpracticesofthemajorlawfirmsandinthecompetitionforjudicial

clerkships,andintheappointmentstolawfaculties,thegraduatesoftheeliteschools

entstudyof

Chicagolawyers,ZemansandRosenblumfoundthatlawyerswhoattended

"high-prestigelawschoolsandgraduatedinthetop20percentoftheirclasseswere

muchmorelikelytopracticeinlargefirmsandspecializeinhigh-prestigefieldsoflaw".

Intermsofappointmentstolawfaculties,60%ofthelegalprofession’steaching

specialistsareproducedbyfewerthan15%ofthenationsaccreditedlawschools.

Theselawteacherproducerschoolsaremostlynational,locatedinurbanlocations,

andincludeschoolssuchasHarvard,Yale,Columbia,UniversityofMichigan,Chicago,

ewYorkUniversity,orthwesternUniversity,truethatthe

fulltimefacultyofthelawschools"haveavirtualmonopolyonwhowillandwillnot

enterthe(legal)profession"and"onthepowertomoldfuturegenerations",thenthe

existenceofahierarchyamongthelawschoolssuggeststhatanelitegroupofschools

isprimarilyresponsibleforstaffingthelawschools,whichinturnproducelawyersfor

thehierarchieswithintheprofession.

LessonFour：JudicialSystem司法系统

PartOne：Courts

ate,aswellas

theDistrictofColumbia,hasitsownfullydeveloped,independentsystemofcourtsand

eralcourtsarenotsuperiortothestate

courts;theyareanindependent,coordinatesystemauthorizedbytheUnitedStates

Constitution,Art.Ⅲ,§2,senceof

twoparallelcourtsystemsoftenraisesquestionsconcerningtherelationshipofthe

stateandfederalsystems,tedStates

SupremeCourt,composedofninejustices,sitsasthefinalandcontrollingvoiceover

allthesesystems.

Althoughafewstates,suchasebraska,haveatwo-tieredsystem,moststates,aswell

asthefederalcourts,ansthatforanylitigant

therewillbetheopportunitytopleadhiscasebeforeatrialcourtandthen,shouldhe

lose,mple,in

thefederalsystemthetrialcourtistheUnitedStatesDistrictCourt,ofwhichthereisat

rgerstatesaredividedintotwo,threeorevenfour

judicialdistricts,dependingonpopulation,re

ninety-fourdistrictsintheUnitedStatesandeachdistrictcourthasonejudge,ormore

nadversejudgmentinthedistrictcourt,alitigantmay

appealtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthecircuitinwhichthedistrictcourtis

reelevennumberedintermediateappellatecourtsinthefederalsystem,

onally,thereisa

CourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbia,hearingappealsfromthefederaldistrict

courtthere,andonefortheFederalCircuit,takingappealsfromvariousspecialized

federaltribunals,urtofappealshasfourormore

judgeswhositinpanelsofthreetoreviewdistrictcourtdecisions,aswellassome

glitigantinthecourtofappealsmay,in

somecases,nthe

statecourtssimilarlymayproceedthroughatrialcourt,astateappellatecourt,and

eralconstitutionalquestionisinvolvedthe

decisionofthestateSupremeCourtmaybereviewedbytheUnitedStatesSupreme

1988,reviewbytheSupremeCourtincivilcasesisdiscretionary;virtually

allcivilappealsasofrighttothehighestcourthavebeenabolished.

roaches

takenrefl

example,inCaliforniaonlycriminalcasesinwhichcapitalpunishmenthasbeen

rly,inthefederal

courts,exceptinafewverylimitedcircumstances,appealstotheUnitedStates

SupremeCourtarediscretionary,rtdecidesforitselfwhat

arethemostimportantquestionsthatdeserveitsattentionandwillrefusetoreview

wayitsupervisesthe

therendofthe

spectrum,suchasinewYork,appealstothestateshighestcourtareasofrightina

maryfunctionofthehighestcourtin

cessaryto

checkcarefullythestatutesofthesysteminwhichyouareappearingtodeterminethe

specificrulesregardingreviewbythoseappellatecourts.

PartTwo：Judges

Fewerthanoneintwentyofthoseadmittedtopracticelawisafederal,state,county,or

forsomeinferiorcourts,judgesaregenerallyrequiredto

ssolittle

uniformitythatitisdifficulttogeneralizefurtherthantopointoutthreesalient

characteristicsthatrelatetotheranksfromwhichjudgesaredrawn,tothemethodof

theirselection,andtotheirtenure.

Judgesaredrawnfromthepracticingbarandlessfrequentlyfromgovernmentservice

sintheUnitedStatesnocareerjudiciarylikethat

foundinmanyothercountriesandthereisnoprescribedroutefortheyounglaw

graduatewhoaspirestobeajudge,noapprenticeshipthatmustbeserved,noservice

standingyounglawgraduateswhoactforayearortwoas

lawclerkstothemostdistinguishedjudgesofthefederalandstatecourtshaveonly

therewardoftheexperiencetotakewiththemintopracticeandnotthepromiseofa

tisnotuncommonforavacancyonahighercourttobefilledby

ajudgefromalowercourt,alprofession

isnotentirelyunawareoftheadvantagesofacareerjudiciary,butitisgenerally

thoughtthattheyareoutweighedbytheexperienceandindependencewhichAmerican

theoutstandingjudgesofthecountryshighest

ismhascenteredinsteadonthe

prevalentmethodofselectionofjudges.

Statecourtjudgesareusuallyelected,commonlybypopularvote,butoccassionallyby

relectionhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdisapproval,including

thatoftheAmericanBarAssociation,onthegroundthatthepubliclacksinterestinand

informationoncandidatesforjudicialofficeandthatthereforetheoutcomeistoooften

uationhasbeensomewhatimproved

sincemanylocalbarassociationshaveundertakentoevaluatethequalificationsof

candidatesandtosupportoropposethemonthisbasis.

Since1937,theAmericanBarAssociationhasadvocatedthesubstitutionofasystem

underwhichthegovernorappointsjudgesfromalistsubmittedbyaspecial

nominatingboardandthejudgethenperiodicallystandsunopposedforreelectionby

ystemisnowineffect,forat

leastsomejudges,llgroupofstates,judges

areappointedbythegovernorsubjecttolegislativeconfirmation.

Thisisalsothemethodofselectionoffederaljudges,whoareappointedbythe

dertheappointivesystemthe

selectionofjudgesisnotimmunefrompoliticalinfluenceandappointeesareusuallyof

thePresidentsorgovernor’esofcandidatesforthefederal

judiciaryaresubmittedtoacommitteeoftheAmericanBarAssociationand

iceofchiefjudgeorchief

justiceisusuallyfilledinthesamemannerasotherjudicialoffices,althoughinsome

statesitisfilledfromamongthemembersofthecourtbyrotation,byseniorityof

service,efJusticeoftheUnitedStatesisappointedby

thePresident,subjecttoSenateconfirmation.

Thethirdcharacteristicisthatjudgescommonlyserveforatermofyearsratherthan

rtsofgeneraljurisdictionitistypicallyfour,six,oreightyears,andfor

appellatecourts,six,eight,y,evenwhereselectionisbypopular

election,itiscustomarytoreturntoofficeforsittingjudgeswhoseservicehasbeen

statecourtsandinthefederalcourtsthejudgessitforlife.

Whetheronthebenchforatermofyearsorforlife,ajudgemayberemovedfromoffice

cesofremovalhave

beenrareindeedandonlyahandfuloffederaljudgeshavebeenremovedbyformal

ependenceofthejudiciaryisalsoencouragedbytherulethata

judgeincursnocivilliabilityforjudicialacts,

AmericanBarAssociation’sCodeofJudicialConducthasbeenwidelyadoptedasa

esforthehigherjudicialoffices

areusuallygoodalthoughlessthantheincomeofasuccessfulprivatepractitioner,the

prestigeoftheseofficesishigh,andthebenchhasbeenabletoattractmanyofthe

country’atnamesinAmericanlawareinlargepartthe

namesofitsgreatjudges.

LessonFive：Constitution宪法

PartOne：TheConstitutionasSupremeLaw

tution,arelativelysimpledocument,istheselfdesignated"supreme

lawoftheland".Thisclauseistakentomeanthatwhenstateconstitutions,orlaws

passedbystatelegislaturesorthenationalCongress,arefoundtoconflictwiththe

federalConstitution,onshandeddownbytheSupremeCourt

overthecourseoftwocenturieshaveconfirmedandstrengthenedthisdoctrineof

constitutionalsupremacy.

FinalauthorityisvestedintheAmericanpeople,whocanchangethefundamentallawif

theywish,byamendingtheConstitution,or--intheory,

peoplesauthorityisnotexerciseddirectly,todaybusinessof

governmentisdelegatedbythepeopletopublicofficials,bothelectedandappointed.

ublicactionsmustconformtothe

dofficials

muststandforreelectionatperiodicintervals,whentheirrecordissubjectto

tedofficialsserveatthepleasureofthepersonor

authoritywhoappointedthem,andmayberemovedwhentheirperformanceis

eptiontothisisthelifetimeappointmentbythePresidentof

JusticesoftheSupremeCourtandotherfederaljudges.

Mostcommonly,

Constitution,however,doesmakeprovisionfortheremovalofapublicofficialfrom

office,incasesofextrememisconductormalfeasance,bytheprocessofimpeachment.

ArticleⅡ,Section4reads:

"ThePresident,VicePresident,andallcivilofficersoftheUnitedStates,shallbe

removedfromofficeonimpeachmentfor,andconvictionof,treason,bribery,orother

highcrimesandmisdemeanors."

Insuchcases,

publicofficialisthentriedintheSenate,withtheChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates

presidingatthetrial.

ast200

years,alshavebeenimpeached:ninejudges,anAssociateJusticeof

theSupremeCourt,aSecretaryofWar,aSenator,andaPresident,AndrewJohnson.(In

thecaseofanotherPresident,Richardixon,althoughtheHouseJudiciaryCommittee

recommendedimpeachmentthePresidentresignedbeforeaHousevotewastaken.)

Outofthethirteencases,onlyfourjudgeshavebeenconvictedandremovedfrom

fficialsaresimilarlysubjecttoimpeachmentbythelegislaturesoftheir

respectivestates.

Inadditiontosettingforthgeneralpoliticalideas,theConstitutionprovidesthe

eemajorarticlesdescribethethree

branchesofthenationalgovernment--legislative,executiveandjudicial--eachwith

tsonwhichthelegislativebranchcanmake

lawsaresetoutinconsiderabledetail,althoughovertheyearsjudicialdecisionshave

ersanddutiesofthePresident,

asheadoftheexecutivebranch,moffederalcourtsisoutlined,

anditsrelationshiptootherbranchesofgovernmentissetforth.

PartTwo：ThePrinciplesofGovernment

AlthoughtheConstitutionhaschangedinmanyaspectssinceitwasfirstadopted,its

basicprinciplesremainthesamenowasin1789:

Thethreemainbranchesofgovernmentareseparateanddistinctfromoneanother.

Th

branchservesasacheckonpotentialexcessesoftheothers.

TheConstitution,togetherwithlawsproperlypassedaccordingtoitsprovisions,and

treatiesenteredintobythePresidentandapprovedbytheSenate,standsaboveall

otherlaws,executiveactsandregulations.

tesare

equal,andnonecanreceivespecialtreatmentfromthefederalgovernment.

WithinthelimitsoftheConstitution,eachstatemustrecognizeandrespectthelawsof

theothers.

Stategovernments,likethefederalgovernment,mustberepublicaninform,withfinal

authorityrestinginthepeople.

Thepeoplehavetherighttochangetheirformofgovernmentbylegalmeansdefinedin

theConstitutionitself.

PartThree:ProvisionsforAmendment

TheauthorsoftheConstitutionwerekeenlyawarethatchangeswouldbeneededfrom

timetotimeiftheConstitutionweretoendureandkeeppacewiththegrowthofthe

realsoconsciousthattheprocessofchangeshouldnotbefacile,

ametoken,they

wantedtoassurethataminoritycouldnotblockactiondesiredbymostofthepeople.

TheirsolutionwastodeviseadualprocessbywhichtheConstitutioncouldbe

gress,byatwothirdsvoteineachhouse,mayinitiateanamendment.

OrthelegislaturesoftwothirdsofthestatesmayaskCongresstocallanational

ercase,amendmentsmusthave

theapprovalofthreefourthsofthestatesbeforetheyenterintoforce.

AsidefromthedirectprocessofchangingtheConstitutionitself,theeffectofits

nthehistoryoftherepublic,

n,theSupremeCourtestablishedthe

doctrineofjudicialreview,whichisthepoweroftheCourttointerpretactsofCongress

trinealsoembracesthepoweroftheCourtto

explainthemeaningofvarioussectionsoftheConstitutionastheyapplytochanging

legal,political,eyears,aseriesofCourt

decisions,onissuesrangingfromgovernmentalregulationofradioandtelevisionto

therightsoftheaccusedincriminalcases,hashadtheeffectofalteringthethrustof

constitutionallaw,withnosubstantivechangeintheConstitutionitself.

Congressionallegislation,passedtoimplementprovisionsofthebasiclaw,ortoadapt

ittochangingconditions,alsobroadensand,insubtleways,changesthemeaningof

oint,therulesandregulationsofthemyriadagenciesofthe

dtestinbothcasesiswhether,in

theopinionofthecourts,suchlegislationandrulesareinconformitywiththeintent

andpurposesoftheConstitutionitself.

LessonSeven:CriminalLaw刑法

homicides

arecriminal,tance,apersonwhokillsanotherinselfdefensehas

committednocrime;eistrueofthepoliceofficerwho

killsapersontopreventthecommissionofaforciblefelony,suchasrobberyor

burglary,whenthekillingisareasonablynecessarypreventivemeasure;orwhenthe

,too,somekillings

areexcusablehomicides;forinstance,whereapersonaccidentally,andwithoutgross

negligence,causesthedeathofanotherindividual.

Akillingamountstoacriminalhomicidewhenitisdonewithoutlawfuljustificationor

inguponcertaincircumstancesitmaybeeithermurderor

manslaughter.

Intheearlydaysofourcountry,andpriortheretoinEngland,theelementsofthe

decisionscametobeknownasthe"commonlaw".Sincethen,inmostjurisdictions

murderandmanslaughterhavebeenredefinedbythelegislatures,eitherintheformof

Accordingtothecommonlaw,murderwasthekillingofahumanbeingwith"malice",

andtherequirementof"malice"isstillfoundinsomepresentdaystatutesandcodes.

TheCaliforniaPenalCode,forinstance,deprovides,asdidthe

commonlaw,that

"...presswhenthereismanifesteda

plied,whenno

considerableprovocationappears,orwhenthecircumstancesattendingthekilling

showanabandonedandmalignantheart."

Aclearillustrationofexpressmaliceisacasewhereonepersonintentionallypushes

pleofimpliedmaliceiswhereapersonfires

arifleatamovingpassengertrain,just"toscare"thepersonsaboardortodisplayskill

gerousnessofthe

conductwouldbeevidenceof"malice"asregardsanykillingthatmaybereasonably

dindicate,toaCaliforniacourtorjury,"an

abandonedandmalignantheart".

Thepenaltyformurderispunishablebydeathinsomestates;inothersbyprisonterms

extendingto"life"oraspecifiednumberofyears.

(a)FelonyMurder

Anotherexampleofasatisfactionoftheelementofmaliceisakillingduringthecourse

ougharobbersgungoesoffaccidentally,killing

therobberyvictim,orabystander,orapoliceofficer,hisconductofcommittingsucha

dangerouscrimeasrobberysatisfiestherequirementofmalicesothatthekilling

arlineofreasoninghasresultedinholding

cofelonsguiltyofmurderwhere,inthecourseofanexchangeofshotsbetween

robbersandthepolice,apoliceofficerisaccidentallykilledbyanotherofficer.

Malicemayalsobeattributedtoarobberwhosepartnerinthecrimeintentionallykills

onthe

partofallparticipantsisimpliedfromthedangerousnessoftherobberyitself;

moreover,eachrobberisconsideredtoactasanagentfortheothersinaccomplishing

theirobjective,includingtheattempttoescape.

Thiswholeissueoffelonymurderstemsprimarilyfromtheprosecutionsinterestin

ofthestateswhichhaveabolished

capitalpunishment(Wisconsin,forexample),thelegislatures,outofanunderstandable

desiretopunishrobbersmoreseverelywheneverakillingresults,haveprovidedthat

thepunishmentforsuchoffensesshallbefifteenyearsgreaterthanthatprovidedfor

nonfatalrobberies.

(b)DegreesofMurder

Somestateshavespecifiedvaryingpenaltiesformurder,dependinguponthecircumstancesofthekilling.A"willful,

deliberateandpremeditated"killing,suchasapoisoningorakillingduringthe

commissionofadangerousfelony,maybelabeledfirstdegreemurderandpunishable

ormsofmurdermaybeoftheseconddegree

ingtothecommonlaw,however,there

awfulkillingwaseithermurderormanslaughter.2.

Manslaughter

Manslaughterwasdefinedatcommonlawasanunlawfulkillingofanotherwithout

dbeeithervoluntaryorinvoluntary.

Manslaughter,incontrasttomurder,isusuallypunishablebyaprisontermwhichmay

rangefromoneyeartotenorfourteenyears.

(a)VoluntaryManslaughter

Anintentionalkillingupon"greatprovocation"and"intheheatofpassion"constitutes

icexampleisthekillingbyahusband(or

wife)whounexpectedlyfindshisorherspouseinanactofsexualintercoursewith

anotherperson,orinasituationevidencingimpendingorimmediatelyconcluded

ngoftheparamourorofthespouse,orboth,insucha

circumstancewouldfallwithinthecategoryofmanslaughterbecause(a)the

provocationwasgreat,and(b)thekillerwasinthe"heatofpassion".

Akillingofthistypeistreatedlessharshlythanmurder,outofconsiderationforthe

rwords,thereisanunderstandingappreciationthat

theinstinctivereactionofthehusband(orwife)insuchasituationistokillordoother

heless,thereisafeelingthatsuchconductshouldbediscouraged

byacriminalsanction,butonewithapenaltyconsiderablylessthanforthecrimeof

murder.

Itisofinteresttonotethatinsuchparamourkillingcasestheconvictionrateisquite

low,primarilybecauseofthewillingnessofjuriestoacceptoccasionallythefrequently

concoctedexplanationthatthekillingwasdoneinselfdefense;inotherwords,the

paramourattackedthespouse,whokilledhis"attacker"onlyinordertokeepfrom

ultofacquittalinsuchcasesissometimesdescribedinthe

pressasanacquittalbyreasonof"theunwrittenlaw".

Afewstates(Texas,ewMexico,andUtah)havetriedtosimplifythewholematterof

paramourkillingsbylegalizingsuchkillingswheretheparamouriscaughtintheact.

Butinthosestatestheprivilegedoesnotextendtothekillingoftheparticipating

spouse!

Inapplyingthetestofwhetheranintentionalkillingwasupongreatprovocationandin

theheatofpassion,thequestionisputtothejury,ortothejudgeinnonjurycases,as

towhethertheaccusedreactedasa"reasonableman".Technicallyspeaking,itisnot

theparticularsensitivityortemperofthekillerthatistakenintoconsideration,but

ratheraneffortismadetodeterminehowa"reasonableman"mighthaveactedunder

strationofthisisafamousEnglishcasewhereasexually

impotentmanfeltinsultedbytheremarksofaprostitutewithwhomhehadtriedinvain

tohavesexualintercourse,endedthathis

sensitivityoverhisconditionshouldbetakenintoaccountindeterminingwhether

therewasseriousprovocationforthisreaction,butthecourtheldthathisconductwas

tobejudgedbythestandardofanordinary,normal"reasonableman".

(b)InvoluntaryManslaughter

Involuntarymanslaughtermaybedescribedgenerallyasanunintentionalkilling

resultingfromgrossnegligence,

example,apersonwhothrowsaheavyobjectfromtheupperstoriesofabuildinginto

analleyusedwithsomefrequencybypedestriansmaybeguiltyofmanslaughterifa

se,amotoristmaycommitmanslanghterifhekillsachildata

schoolcrossingwhiletravellingatanexcessivespeed.

Anumberofstateshavecreatedarelatedcrimeknownas"recklesshomicide"or

"negligenthomicide",forapplicationtokillingsbymotoristswhoweredrivingina

ecialkindofhomicidelegislationwas

enactedbecauseofthedifficultyencounteredinconvictingmotoristsforthemore

revoltinglylabeledoffenseofmanslaughter(i.e.,theslaughterofaman),whichalso

carried,traditionally,hought

advisabletocategorizesuchconductwiththelessrevoltinglabelofrecklessor

negligenthomicideandalsotopermittheimpositionoflesserpenaltiesthantheone

anotherway,itisbettertoobtainareasonable

numberofconvictionscarryingrelativelylightpenaltiesthantogetveryfew

missiblerangeofpenaltiesinreckless

homicideornegligenthomicidestatutesisgenerallyafineupto$1,000,or

incarcerationotherthaninapenitentiaryforanyperioduptooneyear,orimprisonment

inapenitentiaryuptofiveyears.(Wherethetrafficvictimofsuchconductdoesnotdie,

anothernewstatutoryoffensemaybeinvoked--"recklessconduct".)

Theflexibilityofpenaltiesintrafficdeathcaseshastheeffectofencouragingpleasof

guiltyfromoffenders,anditresultsinconvictionsthatmightnotbesecuredifajudge

l

HomicideLaw

anbenone,infact,since

constitutionalauthorityislackingforCongresstolegislateuponthesubject,except

withrespecttokillingswithinafederalterritory,infederalbuildingsoruponother

federalproperty,orkillingsoffederalofficialsorofficers.

Example

X,withoutjustificationorexcuse,mmitteda

federaloffenseofcriminalhomicide.

Example

X,,shootsandkills

ltyofafederalcrimeofmurder.

MurderManslaughterLegislation

Inmoststatesthecrimesofmurderandmanslaughterarecoveredinstatestatutes

isnowunderway,however,to

ning

murder,forinstance,itavoidssuchlanguageas"malice"and"abandonedand

malignantheart",andusesmorepreciseandmeaningfulterminology.

AccordingtotheIllinoisCode,apersonwhokillsanotherindividualwithoutlawful

excusecommitsmurder(a)ifheintendedtokillhimordogreatbodilyharm;or(b)if,

withoutintendingtokill,itclearlyappearsthathemusthaveknownthathisconduct

probablywouldcausedeath;or(c)ifdeathresultedfromthecommissionofavery

seriouscrimelikerobbery,lPunishment

Formanyyearstherehasbeenmuchcontroversyastowhethercapitalpunishment

ueisstillunresolvedamong

italpunishmentcontroversyhasbecomerather

academic,however,byreasonoftherapiddeclineinexecutionsinrecentyears.

Althoughtherewere199executionsin1935,therewasonlyoneintheentireUnited

Statesin1966,achofthelatterthreeyearsover

fourhundredpersonswereundersentenceofdeath.

Inadditiontoanincreasingunwillingnesstoexecutemurdererswhohavebeen

sentencedtodeath,alegalconceptwasrecentlydevelopedandenunciatedbythe

SupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesregardingjuryselectionincapitalcasesthatwill

rtheld

thatprospectivejurorscouldnotberejectedsolelybecauseofconscientiousscruples

,saidtheCourt,constitutesadeprivationofdue

process,becausethedefendantwouldnotthenbeaccordedatrialbya"fairand

impartialjury".

Exclusionbecauseofsuchbeliefsaloneispermissibleonlywhentheprospectivejuror

statesthathewouldnotconsidersettingthemasideintheparticularcaseforwhichhe

wascalledforjuryservice.