法律英语课文汇总-何家弘

法律英语课文汇总-何家弘

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LessonOne:LegalSystem法律制度

PartOne

ewnation

comparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitisconstantlybeing

thersenses

eoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstonetobemadeoutofanOldWorld

heoldestwrittenconstitution,theoldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andthe

oldestpracticeofself-governmentofanynation.

OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericansyouthisthatthewholeofitshistorybelongs

leofitshistoryis,therefore,

recorded:indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhassocomprehensivearecordof

itshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchasthosethatarelostinthelegendarypast

ofI

Americanrecordisnotonlycomprehensive;acesnotonlytherecordof

thecolonialeraandoftheationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andthe

,totakeaveryelementary

example,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,andthe

reportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:thereaderwhowantstotracethe

historyoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesoflegalcases.

oonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthecharacterofa

nhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsstrikea

consistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearighttosaythatisthekeynote.

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Whenhundredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddressthemselvesinthesameways,tothe

sameoverarchingproblems,wehavearighttoreadfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwe

cancallnationalcharacteristics.

PartTwo

TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselawsystem.

Mostfieldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensiveandsteadily

growingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretationthroughcaselaw.

Knowledgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueofworkingwithcaselaw

thereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingofAmericanlawandlegal

methodology.

TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyoverlocal

orcementof

aclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,withtheresultthatthe

originalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similartothatofclassicalRomanlaw.

Ifawritexisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithout

awrit,stembecameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"

(1258)prohibitedthecreationofnewwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthe

case"allowedandwhichlaterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.

Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledtothe

developmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaningofdoing

"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlaterbyhisChancellor

as"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",ifteenthcentury,

however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedintoanindependentlegalsystemand

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judiciary(CourtofChancery)es

andmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,l

characteristicsofequitylawinclude:reliefintheformofspecificperformance(incontrastto

thecommonlawawardofcompensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalorder

todoornottodoaspecificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhich

permeatedtheentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegal

r,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefis

tance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywillbe

grantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincetheycannot

compensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.

Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicial

,bothlegalsystemshavebeen

mergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithewYorkin1848),withtheresultthat

thereisonlyw

heless,thereferencetothe

historicaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,ontheonehand,itexplainstheoriginand

significanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawof

property)and,ontheotherhand,itisstillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,

forinstance,thereisarighttoatrialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inother

casesonlybeforethejudge).Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe

"ordinary"commonlawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedy

ofspecificperformanceisavailable.

"Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudge-madelawandtodayincludescommonlawand

eciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"and"caselaw"

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areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthisusageconnoting

judge-madelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Caselaw"alwaysconnotes

judg-madelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--dependingonthemeaning

intended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubjectmattersor,

LessonTwo：LegalProfession法律职业

PartOne：TheBar

Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachofwhich

quirethreeyearsofcollegeanda

allstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,aday

towhichthestateaddsaday

longmultiplechoicetest,

apprenticeshipisrequiredeitherbeforeorafteradmission.

Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyermay

traveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereonehasbeen

r,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmittedwithout

examinationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedforsometime,often

fiveyears.

Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatisopento

tuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboardsofdirectorsof

corporateclients,toengageinbusiness,r

remainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,anemployeeofthegovernmentor

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ofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,andmayreturntoprivatepracticefromthese

ivelysmallnumberoflawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutive

ilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibility

intheprofessionisevidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,

asuccessfulewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,Attorney

GeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.

tinctionbetween

barristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnitedStates,andthereisno

branchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverighttoappearincourt,noristherea

ricanlawyers

domainincludesadvocacy,counselling,rmore,withinthespherebroadly

definedasthe"practiceoflaw"ieldof

advocacy,therulesarefairlyclear:anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,

withtheexceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.

onlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofajudicial

esofdemarcationarelessclearinthe

areasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexamplebetweenthepracticeof

r,thestrictapproach

ofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbyadecisionofewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyer

admittedtopracticeinaforeigncountrybutnotinewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegal

advicetoclientsinewYork,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeign

gnlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarof

oneofthestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasa

consultantonforeignlaw.

PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePractice

Amongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,

remainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,five

ofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedtosalariedlawyers

endtowardgrouppracticeisofrelativelyrecent

houtmostofthenineteenthcenturylawpracticewasgeneralratherthan

specialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyratherthancounsellinganddrafting,andthe

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specializationbeganin

thegrowthofbig

business,biggovernment,andbiglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftothe

needsofclientsf

bestlawyerswereattractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersonswho

rarelyifeverappearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,and

helawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuouslyfamiliarwith

clientsbusinessproblemsandtoparticipateatallstepsintheshapingoftheirpolicies.

Majorbusinesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceofcounsel.

PartThree:HouseCounsel

Outofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchas

industrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseorcorporate

wthofcorporations,thecomplexityof

business,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernmentregulationmakeitdesirablefor

suchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegaltrainingwho,atthesametime,are

inecorporations

eralcounsel,whoheadsthe

office,isusuallyanofficerofthecompanyandmayserveonimportantpolicymaking

ounselremainmembersof

thebarandareentitledtoappearincourt,thoughanoutsidelawyerisoftenretainedfor

r,itisthehousecounselsskillasadvisorratherthanasadvocatethatisa

sproblems,ntlyintouchwiththeemployer

situatedtopracticepreventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompanyonits

broaderobligationtothepublicandthenation.

PartFour：LawyersinGovernment

Aparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyersarenow

employeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,exclusiveofthejudiciary.

Manyofthoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlawgraduateswhofindgovernmentsalaries

sufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheircareersandseekthetrainingthatsuchservicemay

tionsontopsalaries,however,discouragesome

orityservesbyappointmentinthelegal

tedStates

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DepartmentofJusticealoneemploysmorethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentof

areengagedaspublicprosecutors.

Federalprosecutors,theUnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedbythe

rosecutors,

sometimesknownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeachcountyandarenot

e,lawyersingovernmentaredirectly

engagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequentlysoughtaspreparationforgeneral

r,asmallbutimportantminoritythatconstitutesanexceptionto

thisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeenappointedtohighexecutivepositionsandthosewho

theparticipationoflawyersingovernmenthas

declinedrecently,fortwocenturieslawyershavemadeuproughlyhalfoftheCongressofthe

iguresbearoutthecommentofChiefJustice

Stonethat,"otraditionofourprofessionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofits

leadershipinpublicaffairs."

LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育

In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccreditedlaw

schoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;privatelaw

schoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;andlocalornational

uallytheonlywaytoprepare

formembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschoolsintheUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctions

includingprofessionaltrainingandsocializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningand

hereisnocentralinstitutionwhereall

lawyerspractice,theonlyinstitutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislaw

school.

Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschoolshavecarried

outthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,diverseandrooted

riticismshavefocussedon

thecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;thedistributionofpowerandprestige

reflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelawschools;andtheimbalanceintermsof

womenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyandfacultyinthelawschools.

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PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethod

Thetraditionalfirst-yearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschoolsincludes

contracts,torts,property,Kennedyhasdescribedthe

traditionalfirst-yearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingthegroundrulesforlate19thcentury

ondyearandthirdyearcourseexpoundthemoderate

reformistewDealprogramandtheadministrativestructureofthemodernregulatorystate.

Theperipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,includelegalphilosophy,legalhistory,legal

process,andclinicaleducation,a"kindofplaygroundorfinishingschoolforlearningthesocial

artofselfpresentationasalawyer".

However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporaryissues

andproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecoursesandclinical

programsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,women`srights,healthinthe

workplace,realsoincreasingeffortstoteach

lawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonotherdisciplinessuchashistory,psychology,

sociology,medicine,andeconomics.

Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsusetosome

pedinthe1870sbyChristopher

ColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlookedtothecommonlawas

thesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingofanabstractconceptionofthe

alprincipleselicitedweretobetaughtdivorcedfromthe"grubby

worldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrow

formalisticapproachwasjustifiedonthegroundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,

evaluateandcompareconcretefactsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsof

analysis,reasoning,andexpression.

However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedashavingan

ts,law

teachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityandaggressioncaused

rowanddestructiveinteractionofthis

dialogue,oroften"nodialogue",contributestotheimpairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutother

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people,snot

onlythkofa

lawyerinvolvescontinuouscontactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,

othersaffectedbythelaw,andinvolvesthelawyer’sowngoals,attitudes,performance,and

senseofsatisfaction.

PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchy

DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",characterized

bya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesattheexpenseofforests."The

lawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideologicaltrainingforwillingserviceinthe

hierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Intherankingandevaluationofstudents,students

learntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchywhichispresentedasjustandinevitableand"so

preparethemselvesforallthehierarchiestofollow".Inthelawteachersmodelingof

hierarchicalrelationshipswithstudents,colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,students

learnaparticularstyleofcondescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowards

erthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,

middle

middle

classtone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,and

class,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,partlyoutof

genuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legaleducationisoneofthecauses

ducationsupportsitbyanalogy,providesitagenerallegitimating

ideologybyjustifyingtherulesthatunderlieit,andprovidesitaparticularideologyby

ducationstructuresthepoolofprospectivelawyerssothat

theirhierarchicalorganizationseemsinevitable,andtrainsthemtolookandthinkandactjust

likealltheotherlawyersinthesystem".

InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,otheranalysesof

thelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggesttheexistenceofa

dozenorsoelitelawschoolsoccupyapositionof

powerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessionalcareerpathsoftheir

graduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelawschoolsandtherestofthelegal

elsofthe"lawschoolasthegatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecame

possiblewiththeewDeal".FelixFrankfurter’splacementnetworkforthe"bestandthe

brightest"intoinfluentialpublicpolicypositionsduringtheewDealinthe1930swasan

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histenureatHarvardandlaterwhileonthe

SupremeCourt,Frankfurterdevelopedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolved

withtheplacementofmanyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,intopublic

icalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLawSchool,politically

liberal,usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobviousproductofupperclassgentile

cultureoranobviousproductofaradicallydifferentculturewhowas'comfortable'intheupper

classgentileworld".

Inthecurrenthiringpracticesofthemajorlawfirmsandinthecompetitionforjudicial

clerkships,andintheappointmentstolawfaculties,thegraduatesoftheeliteschoolscontinue

entstudyofChicagolawyers,

ZemansandRosenblumfoundthatlawyerswhoattended"high-prestigelawschoolsand

graduatedinthetop20percentoftheirclassesweremuchmorelikelytopracticeinlargefirms

andspecializeinhigh-prestigefieldsoflaw".Intermsofappointmentstolawfaculties,60%of

thelegalprofession’steachingspecialistsareproducedbyfewerthan15%ofthenations

awteacherproducerschoolsaremostlynational,locatedin

urbanlocations,andincludeschoolssuchasHarvard,Yale,Columbia,UniversityofMichigan,

Chicago,ewYorkUniversity,orthwesternUniversity,truethatthe

fulltimefacultyofthelawschools"haveavirtualmonopolyonwhowillandwillnotenterthe

(legal)profession"and"onthepowertomoldfuturegenerations",thentheexistenceofa

hierarchyamongthelawschoolssuggeststhatanelitegroupofschoolsisprimarily

responsibleforstaffingthelawschools,whichinturnproducelawyersforthehierarchies

withintheprofession.

LessonFour：JudicialSystem司法系统

PartOne：Courts

ate,aswellasthe

DistrictofColumbia,hasitsownfullydeveloped,independentsystemofcourtsandthereisa

eralcourtsarenotsuperiortothestatecourts;theyare

anindependent,coordinatesystemauthorizedbytheUnitedStatesConstitution,Art.Ⅲ,§2,to

senceoftwoparallelcourtsystemsoften

raisesquestionsconcerningtherelationshipofthestateandfederalsystems,presenting

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tedStatesSupremeCourt,composedofninejustices,

sitsasthefinalandcontrollingvoiceoverallthesesystems.

Althoughafewstates,suchasebraska,haveatwo-tieredsystem,moststates,aswellas

thefederalcourts,ansthatforanylitiganttherewill

betheopportunitytopleadhiscasebeforeatrialcourtandthen,shouldhelose,therearetwo

mple,inthefederalsystemthe

trialcourtistheUnitedStatesDistrictCourt,

largerstatesaredividedintotwo,threeorevenfourjudicialdistricts,dependingonpopulation,

reninety-fourdistrictsintheUnitedStatesandeachdistrict

courthasonejudge,nadversejudgmentinthedistrict

court,alitigantmayappealtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthecircuitinwhichthe

reelevennumberedintermediateappellatecourtsinthe

federalsystem,onally,

thereisaCourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbia,hearingappealsfromthefederal

districtcourtthere,andonefortheFederalCircuit,takingappealsfromvariousspecialized

federaltribunals,urtofappealshasfourormorejudges

whositinpanelsofthreetoreviewdistrictcourtdecisions,aswellassomedecisionsof

glitigantinthecourtofappealsmay,insomecases,beableto

nthestatecourtssimilarlymay

proceedthroughatrialcourt,astateappellatecourt,

federalconstitutionalquestionisinvolvedthedecisionofthestateSupremeCourtmaybe

1988,reviewbytheSupremeCourtin

civilcasesisdiscretionary;virtuallyallcivilappealsasofrighttothehighestcourthavebeen

abolished.

roachestaken

reflmple,in

Californiaonlycriminalcasesinwhichcapitalpunishmenthasbeenimposedareappealable

rly,inthefederalcourts,exceptinafewvery

limitedcircumstances,appealstotheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtarediscretionary,bywrit

rtdecidesforitselfwhatarethemostimportantquestionsthatdeserveits

attentionandwil

wayither

endofthespectrum,suchasinewYork,appealstothestateshighestcourtareasofright

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maryfunctionofthehighestcourtinew

cessarytocheck

carefullythestatutesofthesysteminwhichyouareappearingtodeterminethespecificrules

regardingreviewbythoseappellatecourts.

PartTwo：Judges

Fewerthanoneintwentyofthoseadmittedtopracticelawisafederal,state,county,or

forsomeinferiorcourts,judgesaregenerallyrequiredtobe

ssolittleuniformitythatitis

difficulttogeneralizefurtherthantopointoutthreesalientcharacteristicsthatrelatetothe

ranksfromwhichjudgesaredrawn,tothemethodoftheirselection,andtotheirtenure.

Judgesaredrawnfromthepracticingbarandlessfrequentlyfromgovernmentserviceorthe

sintheUnitedStatesnocareerjudiciarylikethatfoundinmany

othercountriesandthereisnoprescribedroutefortheyounglawgraduatewhoaspirestobe

ajudge,noapprenticeshipthatmustbeserved,

outstandingyounglawgraduateswhoactforayearortwoaslawclerkstothemost

distinguishedjudgesofthefederalandstatecourtshaveonlytherewardoftheexperienceto

tisnotuncommon

foravacancyonahighercourttobefilledbyajudgefromalowercourt,eventhiscannotbe

alprofessionisnotentirelyunawareoftheadvantagesofacareer

judiciary,butitisgenerallythoughtthattheyareoutweighedbytheexperienceand

theoutstandingjudgesof

ismhascentered

insteadontheprevalentmethodofselectionofjudges.

Statecourtjudgesareusuallyelected,commonlybypopularvote,butoccassionallybythe

relectionhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdisapproval,includingthatofthe

AmericanBarAssociation,onthegroundthatthepubliclacksinterestinandinformationon

candidatesforjudicialofficeandthatthereforetheoutcomeistoooftencontrolledbyleaders

uationhasbeensomewhatimprovedsincemanylocalbar

associationshaveundertakentoevaluatethequalificationsofcandidatesandtosupportor

opposethemonthisbasis.

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Since1937,theAmericanBarAssociationhasadvocatedthesubstitutionofasystemunder

whichthegovernorappointsjudgesfromalistsubmittedbyaspecialnominatingboardand

thejudgethenperiodicallystandsunopposedforreelectionbypopularvoteonthebasisofhis

ystemisnowineffect,foratleastsomejudges,inasubstantialminority

llgroupofstates,judgesareappointedbythegovernorsubjecttolegislative

confirmation.

Thisisalsothemethodofselectionoffederaljudges,whoareappointedbythePresident

dertheappointivesystemtheselectionof

judgesisnotimmunefrompoliticalinfluenceandappointeesareusuallyofthePresidentsor

governor’esofcandidatesforthefederaljudiciaryaresubmittedtoa

committeeoftheAmericanBarAssociationandappointmentisusuallymadeonlywithits

iceofchiefjudgeorchiefjusticeisusuallyfilledinthesamemannerasother

judicialoffices,althoughinsomestatesitisfilledfromamongthemembersofthecourtby

rotation,byseniorityofservice,efJusticeoftheUnitedStates

isappointedbythePresident,subjecttoSenateconfirmation.

Thethirdcharacteristicisthatjudgescommonlyserveforatermofyearsratherthanforlife.

Forcourtsofgeneraljurisdictionitistypicallyfour,six,oreightyears,andforappellatecourts,

six,eight,y,evenwhereselectionisbypopularelection,itiscustomaryto

statecourtsand

ronthebenchforatermofyearsorforlife,a

judgemayberemovedfromofficeonlyforgrossmisconductandonlybyformalproceedings.

Instancesofremovalhavebeenrareindeedandonlyahandfuloffederaljudgeshavebeen

ependenceofthejudiciaryisalsoencouragedbythe

rulethatajudgeincursnocivilliabilityforjudicialacts,evenifguiltyoffraudandcorruption.

TheAmericanBarAssociation’sCodeofJudicialConducthasbeenwidelyadoptedasa

esforthehigherjudicialofficesare

usuallygoodalthoughlessthantheincomeofasuccessfulprivatepractitioner,theprestigeof

theseofficesishigh,andthebenchhasbeenabletoattractmanyofthecountry’sablestlegal

atnamesinAmericanlawareinlargepartthenamesofitsgreatjudges.

LessonFive：Constitution宪法

PartOne：TheConstitutionasSupremeLaw

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tution,arelativelysimpledocument,istheselfdesignated"supremelawof

theland".Thisclauseistakentomeanthatwhenstateconstitutions,orlawspassedbystate

legislaturesorthenationalCongress,arefoundtoconflictwiththefederalConstitution,they

onshandeddownbytheSupremeCourtoverthecourseoftwocenturies

haveconfirmedandstrengthenedthisdoctrineofconstitutionalsupremacy.

FinalauthorityisvestedintheAmericanpeople,whocanchangethefundamentallawifthey

wish,byamendingtheConstitution,or--intheory,ple

authorityisnotexerciseddirectly,to

s

daybusinessofgovernmentis

delegatedbythepeopletopublicofficials,bothelectedandappointed.

ublicactionsmustconformtotheConstitution

dofficialsmuststandfor

reelectionatperiodicintervals,whentheirrecordissubjecttointensivepublicscrutiny.

Appointedofficialsserveatthepleasureofthepersonorauthoritywhoappointedthem,and

eptiontothisisthelifetime

appointmentbythePresidentofJusticesoftheSupremeCourtandotherfederaljudges.

Mostcommonly,

Constitution,however,doesmakeprovisionfortheremovalofapublicofficialfromoffice,in

casesofextrememisconductormalfeasance,eⅡ,

Section4reads:

"ThePresident,VicePresident,andallcivilofficersoftheUnitedStates,shallberemoved

fromofficeonimpeachmentfor,andconvictionof,treason,bribery,orotherhighcrimesand

misdemeanors."

Insuchcases,lic

officialisthentriedintheSenate,withtheChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStatespresidingatthe

trial.

ast200years,only

alshavebeenimpeached:ninejudges,anAssociateJusticeoftheSupreme

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Court,aSecretaryofWar,aSenator,andaPresident,AndrewJohnson.(Inthecaseof

anotherPresident,Richardixon,althoughtheHouseJudiciaryCommitteerecommended

impeachmentthePresidentresignedbeforeaHousevotewastaken.)Outofthethirteen

cases,fficialsare

similarlysubjecttoimpeachmentbythelegislaturesoftheirrespectivestates.

Inadditiontosettingforthgeneralpoliticalideas,theConstitutionprovidestheblueprintforthe

eemajorarticlesdescribethethreebranchesofthenational

government--legislative,executiveandjudicial--eachwithspecificdutiesandresponsibilities.

Subjectsonwhichthelegislativebranchcanmakelawsaresetoutinconsiderabledetail,

althoughovertheyearsjudicialdecisionshaveexpandedthescopeofcongressionalactivity.

ThepowersanddutiesofthePresident,asheadoftheexecutivebranch,aredescribed.A

systemoffederalcourtsisoutlined,anditsrelationshiptootherbranchesofgovernmentisset

forth.

PartTwo：ThePrinciplesofGovernment

AlthoughtheConstitutionhaschangedinmanyaspectssinceitwasfirstadopted,itsbasic

principlesremainthesamenowasin1789:

Theth

anch

servesasacheckonpotentialexcessesoftheothers.

TheConstitution,togetherwithlawsproperlypassedaccordingtoitsprovisions,andtreaties

enteredintobythePresidentandapprovedbytheSenate,standsaboveallotherlaws,

executiveactsandregulations.

tesareequal,

andnonecanreceivespecialtreatmentfromthefederalgovernment.

WithinthelimitsoftheConstitution,eachstatemustrecognizeandrespectthelawsofthe

others.

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Stategovernments,likethefederalgovernment,mustberepublicaninform,withfinal

authorityrestinginthepeople.

Thepeoplehavetherighttochangetheirformofgovernmentbylegalmeansdefinedinthe

Constitutionitself.

PartThree:ProvisionsforAmendment

TheauthorsoftheConstitutionwerekeenlyawarethatchangeswouldbeneededfromtimeto

timeire

alsoconsciousthattheprocessofchangeshouldnotbefacile,permittingillconceivedand

ametoken,theywantedtoassurethataminoritycould

notblockactiondesiredbymostofthepeople.

Theirsolu

Congress,byatwothirdsvoteineachhouse,egislatures

oftwothirdsofthestatesmayaskCongresstocallanationalconventiontodiscussanddraft

ercase,amendmentsmusthavetheapprovalofthree

statesbeforetheyenterintoforce.

fourthsofthe

AsidefromthedirectprocessofchangingtheConstitutionitself,theeffectofitsprovisions

nthehistoryoftherepublic,inthelandmark

n,theSupremeCourtestablishedthedoctrineofjudicialreview,

whichisthepoweroftheCourttointerpretactsofCongressanddecidetheirconstitutionality.

ThedoctrinealsoembracesthepoweroftheCourttoexplainthemeaningofvarioussections

oftheConstitutionastheyapplytochanginglegal,political,economicandsocialconditions.

Overtheyears,aseriesofCourtdecisions,onissuesrangingfromgovernmentalregulationof

radioandtelevisiontotherightsoftheaccusedincriminalcases,hashadtheeffectofaltering

thethrustofconstitutionallaw,withnosubstantivechangeintheConstitutionitself.

Congressionallegislation,passedtoimplementprovisionsofthebasiclaw,ortoadaptitto

changingconditions,alsobroadensand,insubtleways,changesthemeaningofthe

oint,therulesandregulationsofthemyriadagenciesofthefederal

dtestinbothcasesiswhether,intheopinionof

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thecourts,suchlegislationandrulesareinconformitywiththeintentandpurposesofthe

Constitutionitself.

LessonSeven:CriminalLaw刑法

homicidesare

criminal,tance,apersonwhokillsanotherinselfdefensehascommittedno

crime;eistrueofthepoliceofficerwhokillsapersonto

preventthecommissionofaforciblefelony,suchasrobberyorburglary,whenthekillingisa

reasonablynecessarypreventivemeasure;orwhentheofficerkillsadangerousfeloninorder

,too,somekillingsareexcusablehomicides;forinstance,wherea

personaccidentally,andwithoutgrossnegligence,causesthedeathofanotherindividual.

Akillingamountstoacriminalhomicidewhenitisdonewithoutlawfuljustificationorexcuse.

Dependinguponcertaincircumstancesitmaybeeithermurderormanslaughter.

Intheearlydaysofourcountry,andpriortheretoinEngland,theelementsofthecrimesof

ecisionscametobe

knownasthe"commonlaw".Sincethen,inmostjurisdictionsmurderandmanslaughterhave

beenredefinedbythelegislatures,eitherintheformofaseparatestatuteorasaprovisionofa

Accordingtothecommonlaw,murderwasthekillingofahumanbeingwith"malice",andthe

requirementof"malice"ifornia

PenalCode,forinstance,deprovides,asdidthecommonlaw,that

"...presswhenthereismanifestedadeliberate

plied,whennoconsiderable

provocationappears,orwhenthecircumstancesattendingthekillingshowanabandonedand

malignantheart."

Aclearillustrationofexpressmaliceisacasewhereonepersonintentionallypushesanother

pleofimpliedmaliceiswhereapersonfiresarifleata

movingpassengertrain,just"toscare"thepersonsaboardortodisplayskillatfiringabullet

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gerousnessoftheconductwouldbe

evidenceof"malice"asregardsanykillingthatmaybereasonablyattributedtosuchconduct.

Itwouldindicate,toaCaliforniacourtorjury,"anabandonedandmalignantheart".

Thepenaltyformurderispunishablebydeathinsomestates;inothersbyprisonterms

extendingto"life"oraspecifiednumberofyears.

(a)FelonyMurder

Anotherexampleofasatisfactionoftheelementofmaliceisakillingduringthecourseofa

ougharobbersgungoesoffaccidentally,killingtherobbery

victim,orabystander,orapoliceofficer,hisconductofcommittingsuchadangerouscrimeas

robberysatisfiestherequirementofmalicesothatthekillingbecomespunishableasmurder.

Asimilarlineofreasoninghasresultedinholdingcofelonsguiltyofmurderwhere,inthe

courseofanexchangeofshotsbetweenrobbersandthepolice,apoliceofficerisaccidentally

killedbyanotherofficer.

Malicemayalsobeattributedtoarobberwhosepartnerinthecrimeintentionallykills

onthepartofall

participantsisimpliedfromthedangerousnessoftherobberyitself;moreover,eachrobberis

consideredtoactasanagentfortheothersinaccomplishingtheirobjective,includingthe

attempttoescape.

Thiswholeissueoffelonymurderstemsprimarilyfromtheprosecutionsinterestinseeking

ofthestateswhichhaveabolishedcapital

punishment(Wisconsin,forexample),thelegislatures,outofanunderstandabledesireto

punishrobbersmoreseverelywheneverakillingresults,haveprovidedthatthepunishment

forsuchoffensesshallbefifteenyearsgreaterthanthatprovidedfornonfatalrobberies.

(b)DegreesofMurder

Somestateshavespecifiedvaryingpenaltiesformurder,dependinguponthecircumstancesofthekilling.A"willful,deliberateand

premeditated"killing,suchasapoisoningorakillingduringthecommissionofadangerous

felony,maybelabeledfirstdegreemurderandpunishablebydeathorlongimprisonment.

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Otherformsofmurdermaybeoftheseconddegreeandpunishablewithalesserpenalty.

Accordingtothecommonlaw,however,awfulkilling

ughter

Manslaughte

couldbeeithervoluntaryorinvoluntary.

Manslaughter,incontrasttomurder,isusuallypunishablebyaprisontermwhichmayrange

fromoneyeartotenorfourteenyears.

(a)VoluntaryManslaughter

Anintentionalkillingupon"greatprovocation"and"intheheatofpassion"constitutesthe

icexampleisthekillingbyahusband(orwife)who

unexpectedlyfindshisorherspouseinanactofsexualintercoursewithanotherperson,orin

asitungofthe

paramourorofthespouse,orboth,insuchacircumstancewouldfallwithinthecategoryof

manslaughterbecause(a)theprovocationwasgreat,and(b)thekillerwasinthe"heatof

passion".

Akillingofthistypeistreatedlessharshlythanmurder,outofconsiderationforthefrailtiesof

rwords,thereisanunderstandingappreciationthattheinstinctive

reactionofthehusband(orwife)insuchasituationistokillordootherseriousharm.

evertheless,thereisafeelingthatsuchconductshouldbediscouragedbyacriminal

sanction,butonewithapenaltyconsiderablylessthanforthecrimeofmurder.

Itisofinteresttonotethatinsuchparamourkillingcasestheconvictionrateisquitelow,

primarilybecauseofthewillingnessofjuriestoacceptoccasionallythefrequentlyconcocted

explanationthatthekillingwasdoneinselfdefense;inotherwords,theparamourattacked

thespouse,whokilledhis"attacker"ult

ofacquittalinsuchcasesissometimesdescribedinthepressasanacquittalbyreasonof"the

unwrittenlaw".

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Afewstates(Texas,ewMexico,andUtah)havetriedtosimplifythewholematterof

paramourk

thosestatestheprivilegedoesnotextendtothekillingoftheparticipatingspouse!

Inapplyingthetestofwhetheranintentionalkillingwasupongreatprovocationandintheheat

ofpassion,thequestionisputtothejury,ortothejudgeinnonjurycases,astowhetherthe

accusedreactedasa"reasonableman".Technicallyspeaking,itisnottheparticular

sensitivityortemperofthekillerthatistakenintoconsideration,butratheraneffortismadeto

determinehowa"reasonableman"

illustrationofthisisafamousEnglishcasewhereasexuallyimpotentmanfeltinsultedbythe

remarksofaprostitutewithwhomhehadtriedinvaintohavesexualintercourse,andhe

endedthathissensitivityoverhisconditionshouldbetakeninto

accountindeterminingwhethertherewasseriousprovocationforthisreaction,butthecourt

heldthathisconductwastobejudgedbythestandardofanordinary,normal"reasonable

man".

(b)InvoluntaryManslaughter

Involuntarymanslaughtermaybedescribedgenerallyasanunintentionalkillingresultingfrom

grossnegligence,mple,apersonwho

throwsaheavyobjectfromtheupperstoriesofabuildingintoanalleyusedwithsome

fse,amotorist

maycommitmanslanghterifhekillsachildataschoolcrossingwhiletravellingatan

excessivespeed.

Anumberofstateshavecreatedarelatedcrimeknownas"recklesshomicide"or"negligent

homicide",forapplicationtokillingsbymotoristswhoweredrivinginarecklessorgrossly

ecialkindofhomicidelegislationwasenactedbecauseofthe

difficultyencounteredinconvictingmotoristsforthemorerevoltinglylabeledoffenseof

manslaughter(i.e.,theslaughterofaman),whichalsocarried,traditionally,aminimum

houghtadvisabletocategorizesuchconduct

withthelessrevoltinglabelofrecklessornegligenthomicideandalsotopermittheimposition

anotherway,itisbetterto

obtainareasonablenumberofconvictionscarryingrelativelylightpenaltiesthantogetvery

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missiblerangeofpenaltiesinreckless

homicideornegligenthomicidestatutesisgenerallyafineupto$1,000,orincarcerationother

thaninapenitentiaryforanyperioduptooneyear,orimprisonmentinapenitentiaryuptofive

years.(Wherethetrafficvictimofsuchconductdoesnotdie,anothernewstatutoryoffense

maybeinvoked--"recklessconduct".)

Theflexibilityofpenaltiesintrafficdeathcaseshastheeffectofencouragingpleasofguilty

fromoffenders,anditresultsinconvictionsthatmightnotbesecuredifajudgeorjuryhadno

lHomicideLaw

anbenone,infact,sinceconstitutional

authorityislackingforCongresstolegislateuponthesubject,exceptwithrespecttokillings

withinafederalterritory,infederalbuildingsoruponotherfederalproperty,orkillingsof

federalofficialsorofficers.

Example

X,withoutjustificationorexcuse,mmittedafederal

offenseofcriminalhomicide.

Example

X,,shootsandkillsthe

ltyofafederalcrimeofmurder.

MurderManslaughterLegislation

Inmoststatesthecrimesofmurderandmanslaughterarecoveredinstatestatutesclosely

isnowunderway,however,tomodernizethelaw.

ningmurder,forinstance,itavoids

suchlanguageas"malice"and"abandonedandmalignantheart",andusesmorepreciseand

meaningfulterminology.

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AccordingtotheIllinoisCode,apersonwhokillsanotherindividualwithoutlawfulexcuse

commitsmurder(a)ifheintendedtokillhimordogreatbodilyharm;or(b)if,withoutintending

tokill,itclearlyappearsthathemusthaveknownthathisconductprobablywouldcausedeath;

or(c)ifdeathresultedfromthecommissionofaveryseriouscrimelikerobbery,burglaryor

lPunishment

Formanyyearstherehasbeenmuchcontroversyastowhethercapitalpunishmentservesits

ueisstillunresolvedamongresearcherson

italpunishmentcontroversyhasbecomeratheracademic,however,by

ghtherewere199executions

in1935,therewasonlyoneintheentireUnitedStatesin1966,twoin1967andnonein1968.

Yetineachofthelatterthreeyearsoverfourhundredpersonswereundersentenceofdeath.

Inadditiontoanincreasingunwillingnesstoexecutemurdererswhohavebeensentencedto

death,alegalconceptwasrecentlydevelopedandenunciatedbytheSupremeCourtofthe

UnitedStatesregardingjuryselectionincapitalcasesthatwillmakejuryimpositionofthe

rtheldthatprospectivejurorscouldnotbe

rej,saidthe

Court,constitutesadeprivationofdueprocess,becausethedefendantwouldnotthenbe

accordedatrialbya"fairandimpartialjury".

Exclusionbecauseofsuchbeliefsaloneispermissibleonlywhentheprospectivejurorstates

thathewouldnotconsidersettingthemasideintheparticularcaseforwhichhewascalledfor

juryservice.

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